The Eyes Have It
Good near, intermediate, and distant visual acuity is vital because:
• Distant vision is required for VFR operations including take-
off, attitude control, navigation, and landing.
• Distant vision is especially important in avoiding midair
collisions.
• Near vision is required for checking charts, maps, frequency
settings, etc.
• Near and intermediate vision are required for checking aircraft
instruments.
Pilots are encouraged to learn about their own visual strengths and
weaknesses. Changes in vision may occur imperceptibly or very
rapidly. Any change in range of visual acuity at near, intermediate,
and distant points should be brought to the attention of a licensed
physician or Aviation Medical Examiner (AME). An extra pair of
corrective lenses or glasses should be carried when flying. Always
remember vision is a pilot’s most important sense.
See and Be Seen:
• Outside of a 10° cone, visual acuity drops 90%.
• Pilots are 5 times more likely to have a midair collision with an
aircraft flying in the same direction than with one flying in the
opposite direction.
• Avoid self-imposed stresses such as self-medication, alcohol
consumption, smoking, hypoglycemia, sleep deprivation, and
fatigue.
• Do not use monovision contact lenses while flying an aircraft.
• Use supplemental oxygen during night flights above 5,000 ft
MSL and daytime flights above 10,000 ft MSL.
• Any pilot can experience visual illusions–rely on instr uments to
confirm visual perceptions during flight.
Visual Scanning
The probability of spotting a potential collision threat
increases with the time spent looking outside, but certain
techniques may be used to increase the effectiveness of
the scan time. Effective scanning is accomplished with a
series of short, regularly-spaced eye movements that bring
successive areas of the sky into the central visual field. Each
movement should not exceed 10 degrees, and each area
should be observed for at least 1 second to enable detection.
Although horizontal eye movements seem preferred by most
pilots, each pilot should develop a scanning pattern that
is most comfortable and adhere to it to assure optimum
scanning. The human eyes tend to focus somewhere, even
in a featureless sky. If there is nothing specific on which
to focus, your eyes revert to a relaxed intermediate focal
distance (10 to 30 feet). This means that you are looking
without actually seeing anything, which is dangerous. In
order to be most effective, the pilot should shift glances and
refocus at intervals. Shifting the area of focus, at regular
intervals, between the instrument panel and then refocusing
outside of the aircraft helps to alleviate this problem. [See
FAA-H-8083-3B and AC 90-48, Pilots’ Role in Collision
Avoidance.]
Vision Pathophysiology
Cataracts:
A cataract is a painless, progressive condition where the
lens becomes progressively opaque interfering with vision
first noted at night and with reading fine print. Most
cases occur in people over 60 but can occur in younger
patients with diabetes mellitus, chronic use of cortisone, or
with a history of eye trauma. Surgical correction involves
implanting a synthetic intraocular lens, either monofocal or
multifocal.
Untreated cataracts were a factor in a fatal accident in
2013. The FAA permits pilots to fly with early cataracts
with regular eye examinations and post surgically with
monofocal lenses when they meet vision standards without
complications. Multifocal lenses require a brief waiting
period. The visual effects of cataracts can be successfully
treated with a 90% improvement in visual function for most
patients. Regardless of vision correction to 20/20, cataracts
pose a significant risk to flight safety.
Glaucoma:
Glaucoma can be defined as optic nerve damage resulting
from an increase in intraocular pressure affecting the ability
of axons of the retinal ganglion cells to effectively carry visual
information to the brain.
The specific type of glaucoma, stability on acceptable
medications, evidence of visual field defects, and adequate
control of intraocular pressures are factors that influence the
ability to fly with this condition. Ocular Hypertension or
Glaucoma Suspect that is monitored and stable or previous
history of Narrow Angle/Angle Closure Glaucoma which has
been treated with iridectomy /iridotomy (surgical or laser)
and is currently stable may be certified for flying.
Symptoms of severe pain, nausea, transitory loss of
accommodative power, blurred vision, halos, epiphora
(excessive watering of the eye), or iridoparesis (swelling of the
iris of the eye) characteristic of primary or secondary narrow
angle glaucoma are not acceptable for flying. There must be
an absence of side effects and unreliable visual fields or other
defects, and intraocular pressure must be 23 mm Hg or less
in both eyes to be certified by the FAA.
Heterophoria:
Heterophoria relates to an improper fixation of the visual
axis, resulting in misalignment of the eyes. When the ability
to maintain binocular fusion through vergence is exceeded,
phoria results. A pilot who has such a condition could progress
to seeing double (tropia) should they be exposed to hypoxia or
certain medications.
One prism diopter of hyperphoria, six prism diopters of
esophoria, and six prism diopters of exophoria represent
FAA phoria (deviation of the eye) standards that may not be
exceeded.
Color Vision
• Color perception is critical to safe flight for several reasons.
Within the flight environment many types of information are
conveyed using color.
• Human color perception is the result of three types of cones
that contain variations of the photopigment photopsin that
are sensitive to long, medium, and short wavelengths. The
cones are most sensitive to approximately 565nm (red),
545nm (green), and 440nm (blue), respectively.
• Color vision deficiency is more common in males than
females. Globally, 1 in 12 males (8.3%) and 1 in 200 (0.5%)
females are color deficient.
• There are many degrees of color vision deficiency, including
perception, that are skewed but largely trichromatic. Some
individuals are “weak,” or anomalous, in detecting certain
colors, while others have dichromatic vision and only have
two cone types.
• An applicant can be tested with three color vision tests:
Waggoner Computerized Color Vision T est, City
Occupational Colour Assessment & Diagnosis and Rabin
Cone T est (RCCT).
Monocular Vision
A pilot with one eye (monocular), or with effective visual acuity
equivalent to monocular (i.e., best corrected distant visual
acuity in the poorer eye is no better than 20/200), may be
considered for medical certification through special issuance
with a satisfactory adaption period, complete evaluation by an
eye specialist, satisfactory visual acuity corrected to 20/20 or
better by lenses of no greater power than ±3.5 diopters spherical
equivalent, and by passing an FAA medical flight test (MFT).
A Word about Contact Lenses
Monovision contact lenses (one contact lens for distant vision
and the other lens for near vision) make the pilot alternate his/
her vision; that is, a person uses one eye at a time, suppressing
the other, and consequently impairs binocular vision and depth
perception. These lenses are not acceptable for piloting
an aircraft.
PILOT
VISION
OK-25-0270 (1-17-25)
Glare Halo Starburst
Untreated cataracts were a factor in a fatal accident in 2013. As a
cataract progresses, it can cause vision disturbances such as glare,
halos, starbursts, and loss of contrast sensitivity in dark or dusk
conditions making it difficult for a pilot to land.
Some images were used from The Federal Aviation Administration
Helicopter Flying Handbook. Oklahoma City, OK: US Department
of T ransportation; 2019; Publication FAA-H-8083-21B.
Available at: www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/
aviation/helicopter_flying_handbook. Accessed January 17, 2025.
Provided by
Aerospace Medical Education Division, AAM-400
To obtain copies of this brochure online:
https://www.faa.gov/pilots/safety/
pilotsafetybrochures/
or contact:
Federal Aviation Administration
Civil Aerospace Medical Institute
AAM-400
P .O. Box 25082
Oklahoma City, OK 73125
(405) 954-4831
• The r ods are located mainly in the periphery of the retina—an
area that is about 10,000 times more sensitive to light than the
fovea. Rods are used for low light intensity or night vision and
are involved with peripheral vision to detect position references,
including objects (fixed and moving) in shades of gray, but cannot
be used to detect detail or to perceive color.
• Light energy (an image) enters the ey es and is transformed by the
cones and rods into electrical signals that are carried by the optic
nerve to the posterior area of the brain (occipital lobes). This part
of the brain interprets the electrical signals and creates a mental
image of the actual object that was seen by the person.
The Anatomical Blind Spot
The area where the optic nerve connects to the retina in the back of
each eye is known as the optic disk. There is a total absence of cones
and rods in this area, and consequently, each eye is completely blind
in this spot. Under normal binocular vision conditions this is not a
problem because an object cannot be in the blind spot of both eyes
at the same time. On the other hand, where the field of vision of
one eye is obstructed by an object (windshield post), a visual target
(another aircraft) could fall in the blind spot of the other eye and
remain undetected.
The Night Blind Spot
The “Night Blind Spot” appears under conditions of low ambient
illumination due to the absence of rods in the fovea and involves an
area 5 to 10 degrees wide in the center of the visual field. Therefore,
if an object is viewed directly at night, it may go undetected or it
may fade away after initial detection due to the night blind spot.
The Fovea
The fovea is the small depression located in the exact center of
the macula, which contains a high concentration of cones but no
rods, and this is where our vision is most sharp. While the normal
field of vision for each eye is about 135 degrees vertically and
about 160 degrees horizontally, only the fovea has the ability to
perceive and send clear, sharply focused visual images to the brain.
This foveal field of vision represents a small conical area of only
about 1 degree. T o fully appreciate how small a one-degree field is,
and to demonstrate foveal field, take a quarter from your pocket
and tape it to a flat piece of glass, such as a window. Now back off
4 1/2 feet from the mounted quarter and close one eye. The area
of your field of view covered by the quarter is a one-degree field,
similar to your foveal vision.
We know that you can see a lot more than just that one-degree
cone, but do you know how little detail you see outside of that
foveal cone? For example, outside of a ten-degree cone, concentric
to the foveal one-degree cone, you see only about one-tenth of
what you can see within the foveal field. In terms of an oncoming
aircraft, if you are capable of seeing an aircraft within a pilot
foveal field at 5,000 feet away, with peripheral vision you would
detect it at 500 feet. That is why, when you were learning to fly,
your instructor always told you to “put your head on a swivel,” to
keep your eyes scanning the wide expanse of space in front of your
aircraft.
Types of Vision
• Photopic Vision. During daytime or high intensity artificial
illumination conditions, the eyes rely on central vision (foveal
cones) to perceive and interpret sharp images and color of
objects.
• Mesopic Vision. Occurs at dawn, dusk, or under full
moonlight levels and is characterized by decreasing
visual acuity and color vision. Under these conditions, a
combination of central (foveal cones) and peripheral (rods)
vision is required to maintain appropriate visual performance.
• Scotopic Vision. During nighttime, partial moonlight, or
low intensity artificial illumination conditions, central vision
(foveal cones) becomes ineffective to maintain visual acuity
and color perception. Under these conditions, if you look
directly at an object for more than a few seconds, the image
of the object fades away completely (night blind spot).
Peripheral vision (off center scanning) pr ovides the only
means of seeing very dim objects in the dark.
Factors Affecting Vision
• The gr eater the object size, ambient illumination, contrast,
viewing time, and atmospheric clarity, the better the visibility
of such an object.
• D uring the day, objects can be identified easier at a
great distance with good detail resolution. At night, the
identification range of dim objects is limited and the detail
resolution is poor.
• S urface references or the horizon may become obscured
by smoke, fog, smog, haze, dust, ice particles, or other
phenomena, although visibility may be above Visual Flight
Rule (VFR) minimums. This is especially true at airports
located adjacent to large bodies of water or sparsely populated
areas where few, if any, surface references are available. Lack
of horizon or surface reference is common on over-water
flights, at night, and in low-visibility conditions.
PILOT VISION
Vision is a pilot’s most important sense to obtain reference
information during flight. Most pilots are familiar with the optical
aspects of the eye. Before we start flying, we know whether we
have normal uncorrected vision, are farsighted or nearsighted,
or have other visual problems. Most of us who have prescription
lenses, contacts, or eyeglasses have learned to carry an extra set of
glasses with us as a backup when we fly; however, vision in flight is
far more than a lesson in optics.
Seeing involves the transmission of light energy (images) from the
exterior surface of the cornea to the interior surface of the retina
(inside the eye) and the transference of these signals to the brain.
The Anatomy of the Eye
• Light fr om an object enters the eye through the cornea and then
continues through the pupil.
• The opening (dilation) and closing (constriction) of the pupil is
controlled by the iris, which is the colored part of the eye. The
function of the pupil is similar to that of the diaphragm of a
photographic camera: to control the amount of light.
• The lens is located behind the pupil and its function is to focus
light on the surface of the retina.
• The r etina is the inner layer of the eyeball that contains
photosensitive cells called rods and cones. The function of the
retina is similar to that of the film in a photographic camera: to
record an image.
• The cones ar e located in higher concentrations than rods in the
central area of the retina known as the macula, which measures
about 4.5 mm in diameter. The exact center of the macula has a
very small depression called the fovea, which contains cones only.
The cones are used for day or high-intensity light vision. They are
involved with central vision to detect detail, perceive color, and
identify far-away objects.
• E xcessive ambient illumination, especially from light
reflected off the canopy, surfaces inside the aircraft, clouds,
water, snow, and desert terrain can produce glare that
may cause uncomfortable squinting, eye tearing, and even
temporary blindness.
• P resence of uncorrected refractive eye disorders such as
myopia (nearsightedness–impaired focusing of distant
objects), hyperopia (farsightedness–impaired focusing of
near objects), astigmatism (impaired focusing of objects in
different meridians), or presbyopia (impaired focusing of
near objects).
• S elf-imposed stresses such as self-medication, alcohol
consumption (including hangover effects), tobacco
use (including withdrawal), hypoglycemia, and sleep
deprivation/fatigue can seriously impair your vision.
• I nflight exposure to low barometric pressure without the
use of supplemental oxygen (above 10,000 ft during the
day and above 5,000 ft at night) can result in hypoxia,
which impairs visual performance.
• O ther factors that may have an adverse effect on
visual performance include windscreen haze, improper
illumination of the cockpit and/or instruments, scratched
and/or dirty instrumentation, use of cockpit red lighting,
inadequate cockpit environmental control (temperature
and humidity), inappropriate sunglasses and/or prescription
glasses/contact lenses, and sustained visual workload during
flight.
• D ue to the effects of carbon monoxide on the blood,
smokers may experience a physiological altitude that is
much higher than actual altitude. The smoker is thus
more susceptible to hypoxia at lower altitudes than the
nonsmoker.
Focusing
The natural ability to focus your eyes is critical to flight
safety. It is important to know that normal eyes may
require several seconds to refocus when switching views
between near (reading charts), intermediate (monitoring
instruments), and distant objects (looking for traffic or
external visual references).
If dark-adapted eyes are exposed to a bright light source
(searchlights, landing lights, flares, etc.) for a period in
excess of 1 second, night vision is temporarily impaired:
Exposure to aircraft anti-collision lights does not impair
night vision adaptation because the intermittent flashes
have a very short duration (less than 1 second).
Flying at night under clear skies with ground lights below can result
in situations where it is difficult to distinguish the ground lights from
the stars. A similar problem is encountered during certain daylight
operations over large bodies of water. Various atmospheric and water
conditions can create a visual scene with no discernible horizon.