Glossary — Part 4

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6. Use of RNA V Distance in lieu of DME Distance. Substitution of RNA V computed distance to or from

a NA VAID in place of DME distance is permitted when holding. However, the actual holding location and pattern

flown will be further from the NA V AID than designed due to the lack of slant range in the position solution (see

FIG 5−3−7). This may result in a slight difference between RNA V distance readout in reference to the NA V AID

and the DME readout, especially at higher altitudes. When used solely for DME substitution, the difference

between RNA V distance to/from a fix and DME slant range distance can be considered negligible and no pilot

action is required.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 1−2−3, Use of Suitable Area Navigation (RNAV) Systems on Conventional Procedures and Routes.

FIG 5−3−7

Difference Between DME Distance From NA V AID & RNA V Computed Distance From NA V AID

7. Use of RNA V Guidance and Holding. RNA V systems, including multi−sensor Flight Management

Systems (FMS) and stand−alone GPS receivers, may be used to furnish lateral guidance when executing a hold.

The manner in which holding is implemented in an RNA V system varies widely between aircraft and RNA V

system manufacturers. Holding pattern data may be extracted from the RNA V database for published holds or

may be manually entered for ad−hoc ATC−assigned holds. Pilots are expected to be familiar with the capabilities

and limitations of the specific RNA V system used for holding.

(a) All holding, including holding defined on an RNA V or RNP procedure, is based on the conventional

NA V AID holding design criteria, including the holding protected airspace construction. There are differences

between the holding entry and flight track assumed in conventional holding pattern design and the entry and track

that may be flown when RNA V guidance is used to execute holding. Individually, these differences may not affect

the ability of the aircraft to remain within holding pattern protected airspace. However, cumulatively, they can

result in deviations sufficient to result in excursions up to limits of the holding pattern protected airspace, and

in some circumstances beyond protected airspace. The following difference and considerations apply when an

RNA V system furnishes the lateral guidance used to fly a holding pattern:

(1) Many systems use ground track angle instead of heading to select the entry method. While the

holding pattern design allows a 5 degree tolerance, this may result in an unexpected entry when the winds induce

a large drift angle.

(2) The holding protected airspace is based on the assumption that the aircraft will fly−over the holding

fix upon initial entry. RNA V systems may execute a “fly−by” turn when approaching the holding fix prior to

entry. A “fly−by” turn during a direct entry from the holding pattern side of holding course may result in

excursions beyond protected airspace, especially as the intercept angle and ground speed increase.

(3) During holding, RNA V systems furnish lateral steering guidance using either a constant bank or

constant radius to achieve the desired inbound and outbound turns. An aircraft’s flight guidance system may use

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reduced bank angles for all turns including turns in holding, especially at higher altitudes, that may result in

exceeding holding protected airspace. Use of a shallower bank angle will expand both the width and length of

the aircraft track, especially as wind speed increases. If the flight guidance system’s bank angle limit feature is

pilot−selectable, a minimum 25 degree bank angle should be selected regardless of altitude unless aircraft

operating limitations specify otherwise and the pilot advises ATC.

(4) Where a holding distance is published, the turn from the outbound leg begins at the published

distance from the holding fix, thus establishing the design turn point required to remain within protected airspace.

RNA V systems apply a database coded or pilot−entered leg distance as a maximum length of the inbound leg

to the holding fix. The RNA V system then calculates a turn point from the outbound leg required to achieve this

inbound leg length. This often results in an RNA V−calculated turn point on the outbound leg beyond the design

turn point. (See FIG 5−3−8). With a strong headwind against the outbound leg, RNA V systems may fly up to and

possibly beyond the limits of protected airspace before turning inbound. (See FIG 5−3−9.) This is especially true

at higher altitudes where wind speeds are greater and ground speed results in a wider holding pattern.

FIG 5−3−8

RNA V Lateral Guidance and Holding – No Wind

FIG 5−3−9

RNA V Lateral Guidance and Holding – Effect of Wind

(5) Some RNA V systems compute the holding pattern based on the aircraft’s altitude and speed at a

point prior to entering the hold. If the indicated airspeed is not reduced to comply with the maximum holding

speed before this point, the computed pattern may exceed the protected airspace. Loading or executing a holding

pattern may result in the speed and time limits applicable to the aircraft’s current altitude being used to define

the holding pattern for RNA V lateral guidance. This may result in an incorrect hold being flown by the RNA V

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system. For example, entering or executing the holding pattern above 14,000 feet when intending to hold below

14,000 feet may result in applying 1 ½ minute timing below 14,000 feet.

NOTE−

Some systems permit the pilot to modify leg time of holding patterns defined in the navigation database; for example, a

hold−in−lieu of procedure turn. In most RNAV systems, the holding pattern time remains at the pilot−modified time and will

not revert back to the coded time if the aircraft descends to a lower altitude where a shorter time interval applies.

(b) RNA V systems are not able to alert the pilot for excursions outside of holding pattern protected

airspace since the dimensions of this airspace are not included in the navigation database. In addition, the

dimensions of holding pattern protected airspace vary with altitude for a charted holding pattern, even when the

hold is used for the same application. Close adherence to the pilot actions described in this section reduce the

likelihood of exceeding the boundary of holding pattern protected airspace when using RNA V lateral guidance

to conduct holding.

(c) Holding patterns may be stored in the RNA V system’s navigation database and include coding with

parameters defining how the RNA V system will conduct the hold. For example, coding will determine whether

holding is conducted to manual termination (HM), continued holding until the aircraft reaches a specified altitude

(HA), or holding is conducted until the holding fix is crossed the first time after entry (HF). Some systems do

not store all holding patterns, and may only store patterns associated with missed approaches and hold−in−lieu

of procedure turn (HILPT). Some store all holding as standard patterns and require pilot action to conduct

non−standard holding (left turns).

(1) Pilots are cautioned that multiple holding patterns may be established at the same fix. These holding

patterns may differ in respect to turn directions and leg lengths depending on their application as an en route

holding pattern, a holding pattern charted on a SID or STAR, or when used on an instrument approach procedure.

Many RNA V systems limit the database coding at a particular fix to a single holding pattern definition. Pilots

extracting the holding pattern from the navigation database are responsible for confirming that the holding

pattern conforms to the assigned charted holding pattern in terms of turn direction, speed limit, timing, and

distance.

(2) If A TC assigns holding that is not charted, then the pilot is responsible for programming the RNA V

system with the assigned holding course, turn direction, speed limit, leg length, or leg time.

(3) Changes made after the initial execution may not apply until the next circuit of the holding pattern

if the aircraft is in close proximity to the holding fix.

8. Pilot Action. The following actions are recommended to ensure that the aircraft remains within holding

protected airspace when holding is performed using either conventional NA VAID guidance or when using RNA V

lateral guidance.

(a) Speed. When ATC furnishes advance notice of holding, start speed reduction to be at or below the

maximum holding speed allowed at least 3 minutes prior to crossing the holding fix. If advance notice by ATC

is not provided, begin speed reduction as expeditiously as practical. It is acceptable to allow RNA V systems to

determine an appropriate deceleration point prior to the holding fix and to manage the speed reduction to the

RNA V computed holding speed. If the pilot does not permit the RNA V system to manage the deceleration from

the computed point, the actual hold pattern size at holding entry may differ from the holding pattern size

computed by the RNA V system.

(1) Aircraft are expected to enter holding at or below the maximum holding speed established in

paragraph 5−3−8j2(a) or the charted maximum holding speed.

[a] All fixed wing aircraft conducting holding should fly at speeds at or above 90 KIAS to minimize

the influence of wind drift.

[b] When RNA V lateral guidance is used in fixed wing airplanes, it is desirable to enter and conduct

holding at the lowest practical airspeed consistent with the airplane’s recommended holding speed to address the

cumulative errors associated with RNA V holding and increase the probability of remaining within protected

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airspace. It is acceptable to allow RNA V systems to determine a recommended holding speed that is at or below

the maximum holding speed.

[c] Helicopter holding is based on a minimum airspeed of 90 KIAS.

(2) Advise A TC immediately if unable to comply with the maximum holding airspeed and request an

alternate clearance.

NOTE−

Speeds above the maximum or published holding speed may be necessary due to turbulence, icing, etc. Exceeding maximum

holding airspeed may result in aircraft excursions bey ond the holding pattern protected airspace. In a non −radar

environment, the pilot should advise ATC that they cannot accept the assigned hold.

(3) Ensure the RNA V system applies the proper time and speed restrictions to a holding pattern. This

is especially critical when climbing or descending to a holding pattern altitude where time and speed restrictions

are different than at the present aircraft altitude.

(b) Bank Angle. For holding not involving the use of RNA V lateral guidance, make all turns during entry

and while holding at:

(1) 3 degrees per second, or

(2) 30 degree bank angle, or

(3) 25 degree bank angle, provided a flight director system is used.

NOTE−

Use whichever requires the least bank angle.

(4) When using RNA V lateral guidance to conduct holding, it is acceptable to permit the RNA V system

to calculate the appropriate bank angle for the outbound and inbound turns. Do not use flight guidance system

bank angle limiting functions of less than 25 degrees unless the feature is not pilot−selectable, required by the

aircraft limitations, or its use is necessary to comply with the aircraft’s minimum maneuvering speed margins.

If the bank angle must be limited to less than 25 degrees, advise ATC that additional area for holding is required.

(c) Compensate for wind effect primarily by drift correction on the inbound and outbound legs. When

outbound, triple the inbound drift correction to avoid major turning adjustments; for example, if correcting left

by 8 degrees when inbound, correct right by 24 degrees when outbound.

(d) Determine entry turn from aircraft heading upon arrival at the holding fix; +/− 5 degrees in heading

is considered to be within allowable good operating limits for determining entry. When using RNA V lateral

guidance for holding, it is permissible to allow the system to compute the holding entry.

(e) RNA V lateral guidance may execute a fly−by turn beginning at an excessively large distance from the

holding fix. Reducing speed to the maximum holding speed at least 3 minutes prior to reaching the holding fix

and using the recommended 25 degree bank angle will reduce potential excursions beyond protected airspace.

(f) When RNA V guidance is used for holding, pilots should be prepared to intervene if the turn from

outbound leg to the inbound leg does not begin within a reasonable distance of the charted leg length, especially

when holding is used as a course reversal HILPT. Pilot intervention is not required when holding in an

ATC−assigned holding pattern that is not charted. However, notify ATC when the outbound leg length becomes

excessive when RNA V guidance is used for holding.

k. When holding at a fix and instructions are received specifying the time of departure from the fix, the pilot

should adjust the aircraft’s flight path within the limits of the established holding pattern in order to leave the

fix at the exact time specified. After departing the holding fix, normal speed is to be resumed with respect to other

governing speed requirements, such as terminal area speed limits, specific ATC requests, etc. Where the fix is

associated with an instrument approach and timed approaches are in effect, a procedure turn must not be executed

unless the pilot advises ATC, since aircraft holding are expected to proceed inbound on final approach directly

from the holding pattern when approach clearance is received.

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l. Radar surveillance of holding pattern airspace areas.

1. Whenever aircraft are holding, ATC will usually provide radar surveillance of the holding airspace on

the controller’s radar display.

2. The controller will attempt to detect any holding aircraft that stray outside the holding airspace and will

assist any detected aircraft to return to the assigned airspace.

NOTE−

Many factors could prevent ATC from providing this additional service, such as workload, number of targets, precipitation,

ground clutter, and radar system capability. These circumstances may make it unfeasible to maintain radar identification

of aircraft to detect aircraft straying from the holding pattern. The provision of this service depends entirely upon whether

controllers believe they are in a position to provide it and does not relieve a pilot of their responsibility to adhere to an

accepted ATC clearance.

3. ATC is responsible for traffic and obstruction separation when they have assigned holding that is not

associated with a published (charted) holding pattern. Altitudes assigned will be at or above the minimum

vectoring or minimum IFR altitude.

4. If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the published

minimum holding altitude and subsequently cleared for the approach, the pilot may descend to the published

minimum holding altitude. The holding pattern would only be a segment of the IAP if it is published on the

instrument procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn.

m. For those holding patterns where there are no published minimum holding altitudes, the pilot, upon

receiving an approach clearance, must maintain the last assigned altitude until leaving the holding pattern and

established on the inbound course. Thereafter, the published minimum altitude of the route segment being flown

will apply. It is expected that the pilot will be assigned a holding altitude that will permit a normal descent on

the inbound course.

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Section 4. Arrival Procedures

5−4−1. Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR) Procedures

a. A STAR is an A TC coded IFR arrival route established for application to arriving IFR aircraft destined for

certain airports. STARs simplify clearance delivery procedures, and also facilitate transition between en route

and instrument approach procedures.

1. STAR procedures may have mandatory speeds and/or crossing altitudes published. Other STARs may

have planning information depicted to inform pilots what clearances or restrictions to “expect.” “Expect”

altitudes/speeds are not considered STAR procedures crossing restrictions unless verbally issued by ATC.

Published speed restrictions are independent of altitude restrictions and are mandatory unless modified by ATC.

Pilots should plan to cross waypoints with a published speed restriction, at the published speed, and should not

exceed this speed past the associated waypoint unless authorized by ATC or a published note to do so. STAR

procedures may have mandatory speeds and/or crossing altitudes published. Other STARs may have planning

information depicted to inform pilots what clearances or restrictions to “expect.” “Expect” altitudes/speeds are

not considered STAR procedures crossing restrictions unless verbally issued by ATC. Published speed

restrictions are independent of altitude restrictions and are mandatory unless modified by ATC. Pilots should plan

to cross waypoints with a published speed restriction, at the published speed, and should not exceed this speed

past the associated waypoint unless authorized by ATC or a published note to do so. A chart note used to transition

from Mach to IAS may also be published. Pilots should maintain their cruise Mach number during the descent

until reaching the published transition speed in knots, then continue the descent at that speed until the next

published speed restriction on the STAR, or until it is necessary to comply with the speed limits published in 14

CFR §91.117.

NOTE−

The “ expect” altitudes/speeds are published so that pilots may have the information for planning purposes. These

altitudes/speeds must not be used in the event of lost communications unless ATC has specifically advised the pilot to expect

these altitudes/speeds as part of a further clearance.

REFERENCE−

14 CFR section 91.185(c)(2)(iii).

2. When an IFR cleared route includes a STAR, pilots must maintain the last assigned altitude until

receiving authorization to descend so as to comply with all published/issued altitude restrictions. This

authorization may contain the phraseology “DESCEND VIA.” If vectored or cleared to deviate off a STAR,

pilots must consider the STAR canceled. If the STAR contains published altitude restrictions, speed restrictions,

or a chart note used to transition from Mach to IAS, those restrictions are also canceled and pilots will receive

an altitude to maintain and, if necessary, a speed. If ATC intends to clear the aircraft back onto the STAR,

controllers will advise pilots where to expect to resume the procedure. Pilots should then be prepared to rejoin

the STAR at the subsequent fix or procedure leg.

(a) Clearance to “descend via” authorizes pilots to:

(1) Descend at pilot’s discretion to meet published restrictions and laterally navigate on a STAR.

(2) When cleared to a waypoint depicted on a STAR, to descend from a previously assigned altitude

at pilot’s discretion to the altitude depicted at that waypoint.

(3) Once established on the depicted arrival, to descend and to meet all published or assigned altitude

and/or speed restrictions.

NOTE−

1. When otherwise cleared along a route or procedure that contains published speed restrictions, the pilot must comply with

those speed restrictions independent of any descend via clearance.

2. ATC anticipates pilots will begin adjusting speed the minimum distance necessary prior to a published speed restriction

so as to cross the waypoint/fix at the published speed. Once at the published speed, ATC expects pilots will maintain the

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published speed until additional adjustment is required to comply with further published or ATC assigned speed restrictions

or as required to ensure compliance with 14 CFR section 91.117.

3. The “descend via” is used in conjunction with STARs to reduce phraseology by not requiring the controller to restate the

altitude at the next waypoint/fix to which the pilot has been cleared.

4. Air traffic will assign an altitude to cross the waypoint/ fix, if no altitude is depicted at the waypoint/fix, for aircraft on

a direct routing to a STAR. Air traffic must ensure obstacle clearance when issuing a “descend via” instruction to the pilot.

5. Minimum en route altitudes (MEA) are not considered restrictions; however, pilots must remain above all MEAs, unless

receiving an ATC instruction to descend below the MEA.

EXAMPLE−

1. Lateral/routing clearance only.

“Cleared Tyler One arrival.”

NOTE−

In Example 1, pilots are cleared to fly the lateral path of the procedure. Compliance with any published speed restrictions

is required. No descent is authorized.

2. Routing with assigned altitude.

“Cleared Tyler One arrival, descend and maintain flight level two four zero.”

“Cleared Tyler One arrival, descend at pilot’ s discretion, maintain flight level two four zero.”

NOTE−

In Example 2, the first clearance requires the pilot to descend to FL 240 as directed, comply with any published speed

restrictions, and maintain FL 240 until cleared for further vertical navigation with a newly assigned altitude or a“descend

via” clearance.

The second clearance authorizes the pilot to descend to FL 240 at his discretion, to comply with any published speed

restrictions, and then maintain FL 240 until issued further instructions.

3. Lateral/routing and vertical navigation clearance.

“Descend via the Eagul Five arrival.”

“Descend via the Eagul Five arrival, except, cross Vnnom at or above one two thousand.”

NOTE−

In Example 3, the first clearance authorized the aircraft to descend at pilot’ s discretion on the Eagul Five arrival; the pilot

must descend so as to comply with all published altitude and speed restrictions.

The second clearance authorizes the same, but requires the pilot to descend so as to cross at Vnnom at or above 12,000.

4. Lateral/routing and vertical navigation clearance when assigning altitude not published on procedure.

“Descend via the Eagul Five arrival, except after Geeno, maintain one zero thousand.”

“Descend via the Eagul Five arrival, except cross Geeno at one one thousand then maintain seven thousand.”

NOTE−

In Example 4, the first clearance authorized the aircraft to track laterally on the Eagul Five Arrival and to descend at pilot’ s

discretion so as to comply with all altitude and speed restrictions until reaching Geeno and then maintain 10,000. Upon

reaching 10,000, aircraft should maintain 10,000 until cleared by ATC to continue to descend.

The second clearance requires the same, except the aircraft must cross Geeno at 11,000 and is then authorized to continue

descent to and maintain 7,000.

5. Direct routing to intercept a STAR and vertical navigation clearance.

“Proceed direct Leoni, descend via the Leoni One arrival.”

“Proceed direct Denis, cross Denis at or above flight level two zero zero, then descend via the Mmell One arrival.”

NOTE−

In Example 5, in the first clearance an altitude is published at Leoni; the aircraft proceeds to Leoni, crosses Leoni at the

published altitude and then descends via the arrival. If a speed restriction is published at Leoni, the aircraft will slow to

comply with the published speed.

In the second clearance, there is no altitude published at Denis; the aircraft must cross Denis at or above FL200, and then

descends via the arrival.

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(b) Pilots cleared for vertical navigation using the phraseology “descend via” must inform ATC upon

initial contact with a new frequency, of the altitude leaving, “descending via (procedure name),” the runway

transition or landing direction if assigned, and any assigned restrictions not published on the procedure.

EXAMPLE−

1. Delta 121 is cleared to descend via the Eagul Five arrival, runway 26 transition: “Delta One Twenty One leaving flight

level one niner zero, descending via the Eagul Five arrival runway two-six transition.”

2. Delta 121 is cleared to descend via the Eagul Five arrival, but ATC has changed the bottom altitude to 12,000: “Delta

One Twenty One leaving flight level one niner zero for one two thousand, descending via the Eagul Five arrival, runway

two-six transition.”

3. (JetBlue 602 is cleared to descend via the Ivane Two arrival, landing south): “JetBlue six zero two leaving flight level

two one zero descending via the Ivane Two arrival landing south.”

b. Pilots of IFR aircraft destined to locations for which STARs have been published may be issued a clearance

containing a STAR whenever ATC deems it appropriate.

c. Use of STARs requires pilot possession of at least the approved chart. RNA V STARs must be retrievable

by the procedure name from the aircraft database and conform to charted procedure. As with any ATC clearance

or portion thereof, it is the responsibility of each pilot to accept or refuse an issued STAR. Pilots should notify

ATC if they do not wish to use a STAR by placing “NO STAR” in the remarks section of the flight plan or by

the less desirable method of verbally stating the same to ATC.

d. STAR charts are published in the Terminal Procedures Publications (TPP) and are available from FAA’s

Aeronautical Information Services (AIS).

e. PBN STAR.

1. Public PBN STARs are normally designed using RNA V 1, RNP 1, or A −RNP NavSpecs. These

procedures require system performance currently met by GPS or DME/DME/IRU PBN systems that satisfy the

criteria discussed in AC 90−100A, U.S. Terminal and En Route Area Navigation (RNA V) Operations. These

procedures, using RNA V 1 and RNP 1 NavSpecs, must maintain a total system error of not more than 1 NM for

95% of the total flight time. Minimum values for A−RNP procedures will be charted in the PBN box (for

example, 1.00 or 0.30).

2. In the U.S., a specific procedure’s PBN requirement s will be prominently displayed in separate,

standardized notes boxes. For procedures with PBN elements, the “PBN box” will contain the procedure’s

NavSpec(s); and, if required: specific sensors or infrastructure needed for the navigation solution, any additional

or advanced functional requirements, the minimum RNP value, and any amplifying remarks. Items listed in this

PBN box are REQUIRED for the procedure’s PBN elements.

5−4−2. Local Flow Traffic Management Program

a. This program is a continuing effort by the FAA to enhance safety, minimize the impact of aircraft noise and

conserve aviation fuel. The enhancement of safety and reduction of noise is achieved in this program by

minimizing low altitude maneuvering of arriving turbojet and turboprop aircraft weighing more than 12,500

pounds and, by permitting departure aircraft to climb to higher altitudes sooner, as arrivals are operating at higher

altitudes at the points where their flight paths cross. The application of these procedures also reduces exposure

time between controlled aircraft and uncontrolled aircraft at the lower altitudes in and around the terminal

environment. Fuel conservation is accomplished by absorbing any necessary arrival delays for aircraft included

in this program operating at the higher and more fuel efficient altitudes.

b. A fuel efficient descent is basically an uninterrupted descent (except where level flight is required for speed

adjustment) from cruising altitude to the point when level flight is necessary for the pilot to stabilize the aircraft

on final approach. The procedure for a fuel efficient descent is based on an altitude loss which is most efficient

for the majority of aircraft being served. This will generally result in a descent gradient window of 250−350 feet

per nautical mile.

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c. When crossing altitudes and speed restrictions are issued verbally or are depicted on a chart, ATC will

expect the pilot to descend first to the crossing altitude and then reduce speed. V erbal clearances for descent will

normally permit an uninterrupted descent in accordance with the procedure as described in paragraph b above.

Acceptance of a charted fuel efficient descent (Runway Profile Descent) clearance requires the pilot to adhere

to the altitudes, speeds, and headings depicted on the charts unless otherwise instructed by ATC. PILOTS

RECEIVING A CLEARANCE FOR A FUEL EFFICIENT DESCENT ARE EXPECTED TO ADVISE ATC

IF THEY DO NOT HA VE RUNWAY PROFILE DESCENT CHARTS PUBLISHED FOR THAT AIRPORT

OR ARE UNABLE TO COMPLY WITH THE CLEARANCE.

5−4−3. Approach Control

a. Approach control is responsible for controlling all instrument flight operating within its area of

responsibility. Approach control may serve one or more airfields, and control is exercised primarily by direct

pilot and controller communications. Prior to arriving at the destination radio facility, instructions will be

received from ARTCC to contact approach control on a specified frequency.

b. Radar Approach Control.

1. Where radar is approved for approach control service, it is used not only for radar approaches (Airport

Surveillance Radar [ASR] and Precision Approach Radar [PAR]) but is also used to provide vectors in

conjunction with published nonradar approaches based on radio NA V AIDs (ILS, VOR, NDB, TACAN). Radar

vectors can provide course guidance and expedite traffic to the final approach course of any established IAP or

to the traffic pattern for a visual approach. Approach control facilities that provide this radar service will operate

in the following manner:

(a) Arriving aircraft are either cleared to an outer fix most appropriate to the route being flown with

vertical separation and, if required, given holding information or, when radar handoffs are effected between the

ARTCC and approach control, or between two approach control facilities, aircraft are cleared to the airport or

to a fix so located that the handoff will be completed prior to the time the aircraft reaches the fix. When radar

handoffs are utilized, successive arriving flights may be handed off to approach control with radar separation in

lieu of vertical separation.

(b) After release to approach control, aircraft are vectored to the final approach course (ILS, RNA V, GLS,

VOR, ADF, etc.). Radar vectors and altitude or flight levels will be issued as required for spacing and separating

aircraft. Therefore, pilots must not deviate from the headings issued by approach control. Aircraft will normally

be informed when it is necessary to vector across the final approach course for spacing or other reasons. If

approach course crossing is imminent and the pilot has not been informed that the aircraft will be vectored across

the final approach course, the pilot should query the controller.

(c) The pilot is not expected to turn inbound on the final approach course unless an approach clearance

has been issued. This clearance will normally be issued with the final vector for interception of the final approach

course, and the vector will be such as to enable the pilot to establish the aircraft on the final approach course prior

to reaching the final approach fix.

(d) In the case of aircraft already inbound on the final approach course, approach clearance will be issued

prior to the aircraft reaching the final approach fix. When established inbound on the final approach course, radar

separation will be maintained and the pilot will be expected to complete the approach utilizing the approach aid

designated in the clearance (ILS, RNA V , GLS, VOR, radio beacons, etc.) as the primary means of navigation.

Therefore, once established on the final approach course, pilots must not deviate from it unless a clearance to

do so is received from ATC.

(e) After passing the final approach fix on final approach, aircraft are expected to continue inbound on

the final approach course and complete the approach or effect the missed approach procedure published for that

airport.

2. ARTCCs are approved for and may provide approach control services to specific airports. The radar

systems used by these centers do not provide the same precision as an ASR/PAR used by approach control

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facilities and towers, and the update rate is not as fast. Therefore, pilots may be requested to report established

on the final approach course.

3. Whether aircraft are vectored to the appropriate final approach course or provide their own navigation

on published routes to it, radar service is automatically terminated when the landing is completed or when

instructed to change to advisory frequency at uncontrolled airports, whichever occurs first.

5−4−4. Advance Information on Instrument Approach

a. When landing at airports with approach control services and where two or more IAPs are published, pilots

will be provided in advance of their arrival with the type of approach to expect or that they may be vectored for

a visual approach. This information will be broadcast either by a controller or on ATIS. It will not be furnished

when the visibility is three miles or better and the ceiling is at or above the highest initial approach altitude

established for any low altitude IAP for the airport.

b. The purpose of this information is to aid the pilot in planning arrival actions; however, it is not an ATC

clearance or commitment and is subject to change. Pilots should bear in mind that fluctuating weather, shifting

winds, blocked runway, etc., are conditions which may result in changes to approach information previously

received. It is important that pilots advise ATC immediately they are unable to execute the approach ATC advised

will be used, or if they prefer another type of approach.

c. Aircraft destined to uncontrolled airports, which have automated weather data with broadcast capability,

should monitor the ASOS/AWOS frequency to ascertain the current weather for the airport. The pilot must advise

ATC when he/she has received the broadcast weather and state his/her intentions.

NOTE−

1. ASOS/AWOS should be set to provide one−minute broadcast weather updates at uncontrolled airports that are without

weather broadcast capability by a human observer.

2. Controllers will consider the long line disseminated weather from an automated weather system at an uncontrolled

airport as trend and planning information only and will rely on the pilot for current weather information for the airport. If

the pilot is unable to receive the current broadcast weather, the last long line disseminated weather will be issued to the pilot.

When receiving IFR services, the pilot/aircraft operator is responsible for determining if weather/visibility is adequate for

approach/landing.

d. When making an IFR approach to an airport not served by a tower or FSS, after ATC advises “CHANGE

TO ADVISORY FREQUENCY APPROVED” you should broadcast your intentions, including the type of

approach being executed, your position, and when over the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision approach)

or when over the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approach). Continue

to monitor the appropriate frequency (UNICOM, etc.) for reports from other pilots.

5−4−5. Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP) Charts

a. 14 CFR section 91.175(a), Instrument approaches to civil airports, requires the use of SIAPs prescribed for

the airport in 14 CFR part 97 unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator (including ATC). If there are

military procedures published at a civil airport, aircraft operating under 14 CFR part 91 must use the civil

procedure(s). Civil procedures are defined with “FAA” in parenthesis, e.g., (FAA), at the top, center of the

procedure chart. DoD procedures are defined using the abbreviation of the applicable military service in

parenthesis, e.g., (USAF), (USN), (USA). 14 CFR section 91.175(g), Military airports, requires civil pilots flying

into or out of military airports to comply with the IAPs and takeoff and landing minimums prescribed by the

authority having jurisdiction at those airports. Unless an emergency exists, civil aircraft operating at military

airports normally require advance authorization, commonly referred to as “Prior Permission Required” or

“PPR.” Additionally, some civil airports may require PPR for the use of runways, taxiways, aprons, or other

airport facilities and services. PPRs are typically published in the Chart Supplement entry for the airport.

Temporary or short−notice PPRs may be disseminated via NOTAM.

NOTE−

Civil aircraft may conduct practice VFR approaches using DoD instrument approach procedures when approved by the air

traffic controller .

Arrival Procedures 5−4−5

AIM 2/20/25

1. IAPs (standard and special, civil and military) are based on joint civil and military criteria contained in

the U.S. Standard for TERPS. The design of IAPs based on criteria contained in TERPS, takes into account the

interrelationship between airports, facilities, and the surrounding environment, terrain, obstacles, noise

sensitivity, etc. Appropriate altitudes, courses, headings, distances, and other limitations are specified and, once

approved, the procedures are published and distributed by government and commercial cartographers as

instrument approach charts.

2. Not all IAPs are published in chart form. Radar IAPs are established where requirements and facilities

exist but they are printed in tabular form in appropriate U.S. Government Flight Information Publications.

3. The navigation equipment required to join and fly an instrument approach procedure is indicated by the

title of the procedure and notes on the chart.

(a) Straight−in IAPs are identified by the navigational system providing the final approach guidance and

the runway to which the approach is aligned (e.g., VOR RWY 13). Circling only approaches are identified by

the navigational system providing final approach guidance and a letter (e.g., VOR A). More than one

navigational system separated by a slash indicates that more than one type of equipment must be used to execute

the final approach (e.g., VOR/DME RWY 31). More than one navigational system separated by the word “or”

indicates either type of equipment may be used to execute the final approach (e.g., VOR or GPS RWY 15).

NOTE−

This procedure identification method has changed and these procedures will be revised in the course of the normal procedure

amendment process. The slash and equipment (e.g., /DME) information will be removed with future amendments. Pilots

should review the procedure’ s notes, planview annotations, and PBN/equipment requirements boxes to determine the

capability needed to accomplish the procedure.

(b) In some cases, other types of navigation systems including radar may be required to execute other

portions of the approach or to navigate to the IAF (e.g., an NDB procedure turn to an ILS, an NDB in the missed

approach, or radar required to join the procedure or identify a fix). When radar or other equipment is required

for procedure entry from the en route environment, a note will be charted in the planview of the approach

procedure chart (e.g., RADAR REQUIRED or ADF REQUIRED). When radar or other equipment is required

on portions of the procedure outside the final approach segment, including the missed approach, a note will be

charted in the notes box of the pilot briefing portion of the approach chart (e.g., RADAR REQUIRED or DME

REQUIRED). Notes are not charted when VOR is required outside the final approach segment. Pilots should

ensure that the aircraft is equipped with the required NA V AID(s) in order to execute the approach, including the

missed approach.

NOTE−

Some military (i.e., U.S. Air Force and U.S. Navy) IAPs have these “additional equipment required” notes

charted only in the planview of the approach procedure and do not conform to the same application standards

used by the FAA.

(c) The FAA has initiated a program to provide a new notation for LOC approaches when charted on an

ILS approach requiring other navigational aids to fly the final approach course. The LOC minimums will be

annotated with the NA V AID required (e.g., “DME Required” or “RADAR Required”). During the transition

period, ILS approaches will still exist without the annotation.

(d) Many ILS approaches having minima based on RVR are eligible for a landing minimum of RVR 1800.

Some of these approaches are to runways that have touchdown zone and centerline lights. For many runways

that do not have touchdown and centerline lights, it is still possible to allow a landing minimum of RVR 1800.

For these runways, the normal ILS minimum of RVR 2400 can be annotated with a single or double asterisk or

the dagger symbol “†”; for example “** 696/24 200 (200/1/2).” A note is included on the chart stating “**RVR

1800 authorized with use of FD or AP or HUD to DA.” The pilot must use the flight director, or autopilot with

an approved approach coupler, or head up display to decision altitude or to the initiation of a missed approach.

In the interest of safety, single pilot operators should not fly approaches to 1800 RVR minimums on runways

without touchdown and centerline lights using only a flight director, unless accompanied by the use of an

autopilot with an approach coupler.

Arrival Procedures5−4−6

AIM2/20/258/7/25 AIM

(e) The naming of multiple approaches of the same type to the same runway is also changing. Multiple

approaches with the same guidance will be annotated with an alphabetical suffix beginning at the end of the

alphabet and working backwards for subsequent procedures (e.g., ILS Z RWY 28, ILS Y RWY 28, etc.). The

existing annotations such as ILS 2 RWY 28 or Silver ILS RWY 28 will be phased out and replaced with the new

designation. The Cat II and Cat III designations are used to differentiate between multiple ILSs to the same

runway unless there are multiples of the same type.

(f) RNA V (GPS) approaches to LNA V , LP, LNA V/VNA V and LPV lines of minima using WAAS and

RNA V (GPS) approaches to LNA V and LNA V/VNA V lines of minima using GPS are charted as RNA V (GPS)

RWY (Number) (e.g., RNA V (GPS) RWY 21).

(g) Performance−Based Navigation (PBN) Box. As charts are updated, a procedure’s PBN requirements

and conventional equipment requirements will be prominently displayed in separate, standardized notes boxes.

For procedures with PBN elements, the PBN box will contain the procedure’s navigation specification(s); and,

if required: specific sensors or infrastructure needed for the navigation solution, any additional or advanced

functional requirements, the minimum Required Navigation Performance (RNP) value, and any amplifying

remarks. Items listed in this PBN box are REQUIRED for the procedure’s PBN elements. For example, an ILS

with an RNA V missed approach would require a specific capability to fly the missed approach portion of the

procedure. That required capability will be listed in the PBN box. The separate Equipment Requirements box

will list ground −based equipment requirements. On procedures with both PBN elements and equipment

requirements, the PBN requirements box will be listed first. The publication of these notes will continue

incrementally until all charts have been amended to comply with the new standard.

4. Approach minimums are based on the local altimeter setting for that airport, unless annotated otherwise;

e.g., Oklahoma City/Will Rogers World approaches are based on having a Will Rogers World altimeter setting.

When a different altimeter source is required, or more than one source is authorized, it will be annotated on the

approach chart; e.g., use Sidney altimeter setting, if not received, use Scottsbluff altimeter setting. Approach

minimums may be raised when a nonlocal altimeter source is authorized. When more than one altimeter source

is authorized, and the minima are different, they will be shown by separate lines in the approach minima box or

a note; e.g., use MHK altimeter setting; when not available use SLN altimeter setting and increase all MDAs

40 feet. The altimeter source location may be referenced by city name, city and state, airport name, or the FAA

location identifier. When using the location identifier, an airport outside the contiguous U.S. will use both the

FAA and ICAO identifiers. New approach procedures and future amendments of existing procedures will use

airport identifiers as the standard reference. When the altimeter must be obtained from a source other than air

traffic a note will indicate the source; e.g., Obtain local altimeter setting on CTAF. When the altimeter setting(s)

on which the approach is based is not available, the approach is not authorized. Baro−VNA V must be flown using

the local altimeter setting only. Where no local altimeter is available, the LNAV/VNA V line will still be published

for use by WAAS receivers with a note that Baro−VNA V is not authorized. When a local and at least one other

altimeter setting source is authorized and the local altimeter is not available Baro −VNA V is not authorized;

however, the LNA V/VNA V minima can still be used by WAAS receivers using the alternate altimeter setting

source.

NOTE−

Barometric Vertical Navigation (baro−VNAV). An RNAV system function which uses barometric altitude information from

the aircraft’ s altimeter to compute and present a vertical guidance path to the pilot. The specified vertical path is computed

as a geometric path, typically computed between two waypoints or an angle based computation from a single waypoint.

Further guidance may be found in Advisory Circular 90−105.

5. A pilot adhering to the altitudes, flight paths, and weather minimums depicted on the IAP chart or vectors

and altitudes issued by the radar controller, is assured of terrain and obstruction clearance and runway or airport

alignment during approach for landing.

6. IAPs are designed to provide an IFR descent from the en route environment to a point where a safe landing

can be made. They are prescribed and approved by appropriate civil or military authority to ensure a safe descent

Arrival Procedures 5−4−7

AIM 2/20/253/15/077110.65R CHG 2AIM 8/7/25

during instrument flight conditions at a specific airport. It is important that pilots understand these procedures

and their use prior to attempting to fly instrument approaches.

7. TERPS criteria are provided for the following types of instrument approach procedures:

(a) Precision Approach (PA). An instrument approach based on a navigation system that provides course

and glidepath deviation information meeting the precision standards of ICAO Annex 10. For example, PAR, ILS,

and GLS are precision approaches.

(b) Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV). An instrument approach based on a navigation system that

is not required to meet the precision approach standards of ICAO Annex 10 but provides course and glidepath

deviation information. For example, Baro −VNA V , LDA with glidepath, LNA V/VNA V and LPV are APV

approaches.

(c) Nonprecision Approach (NPA). An instrument approach based on a navigation system which

provides course deviation information, but no glidepath deviation information. For example, VOR, NDB and

LNAV. As noted in subparagraph k, V ertical Descent Angle (VDA) on Nonprecision Approaches, some approach

procedures may provide a Vertical Descent Angle as an aid in flying a stabilized approach, without requiring its

use in order to fly the procedure. This does not make the approach an APV procedure, since it must still be flown

to an MDA and has not been evaluated with a glidepath.

b. The method used to depict prescribed altitudes on instrument approach charts differs according to

techniques employed by different chart publishers. Prescribed altitudes may be depicted in four different

configurations: minimum, maximum, mandatory, and recommended. The U.S. Government distributes charts

produced by National Geospatial−Intelligence Agency (NGA) and FAA. Altitudes are depicted on these charts

in the profile view with underscore, overscore, both or none to identify them as minimum, maximum, mandatory

or recommended.

1. Minimum altitude will be depicted with the altitude value underscored. Aircraft are required to maintain

altitude at or above the depicted value, e.g., 3000.

2. Maximum altitude will be depicted with the altitude value overscored. Aircraft are required to maintain

altitude at or below the depicted value, e.g., 4000.

3. Mandatory altitude will be depicted with the altitude value both underscored and overscored. Aircraft

are required to maintain altitude at the depicted value, e.g., 5000.

4. Recommended altitude will be depicted with no overscore or underscore. These altitudes are depicted

for descent planning, e.g., 6000.

NOTE−

1. Pilots are cautioned to adhere to altitudes as prescribed because, in certain instances, they may be used as the basis for

vertical separation of aircraft by ATC. When a depicted altitude is specified in the ATC clearance, that altitude becomes

mandatory as defined above.

2. The ILS glide slope is intended to be intercepted at the published glide slope intercept altitude. This point marks the PF AF

and is depicted by the ”lightning bolt” symbol on U.S. Government charts. Intercepting the glide slope at this altitude marks

the beginning of the final approach segment and ensures required obstacle clearance during descent from the glide slope

intercept altitude to the lowest published decision altitude for the approach. Interception and tracking of the glide slope

prior to the published glide slope interception altitude does not necessarily ensure that minimum, maximum, and/or

mandatory altitudes published for any preceding fixes will be complied with during the descent. If the pilot chooses to track

the glide slope prior to the glide slope interception altitude, they remain responsible for complying with published altitudes

for any preceding stepdown fixes encountered during the subsequent descent.

3. Approaches used for simultaneous (parallel) independent and simultaneous close parallel operations procedurally

require descending on the glideslope from the altitude at which the approach clearance is issued (refer to 5 −4−15 and

5−4−16). For simultaneous close parallel (PRM) approaches, the Attention All Users Page (AAUP) may publish a note

which indicates that descending on the glideslope/glidepath meets all crossing restrictions. However, if no such note is

published, and for simultaneous independent approaches (4300 and greater runway separation) where an AAUP is not

published, pilots are cautioned to monitor their descent on the glideslope/path outside of the PF AF to ensure compliance

with published crossing restrictions during simultaneous operations.

Arrival Procedures5−4−8

AIM2/20/258/7/25 AIM

4. When parallel approach courses are less than 2500 feet apart and reduced in-trail spacing is authorized for simultaneous

dependent operations, a chart note will indicate that simultaneous operations require use of vertical guidance and that the

pilot should maintain last assigned altitude until established on glide slope. These approaches procedurally require

utilization of the ILS glide slope for wake turbulence mitigation. Pilots should not confuse these simultaneous dependent

operations with (SOIA) simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches, where PRM appears in the approach title.

5. Altitude restrictions depicted at stepdown fixes within the final approach segment are applicable only

when flying a Non−Precision Approach to a straight−in or circling line of minima identified as an MDA (H).

These altitude restrictions may be annotated with a note “LOC only” or “LNA V only.” Stepdown fix altitude

restrictions within the final approach segment do not apply to pilots using Precision Approach (ILS) or Approach

with Vertical Guidance (LPV , LNA V/VNA V) lines of minima identified as a DA(H), since obstacle clearance

on these approaches is based on the aircraft following the applicable vertical guidance. Pilots are responsible for

adherence to stepdown fix altitude restrictions when outside the final approach segment (i.e., initial or

intermediate segment), regardless of which type of procedure the pilot is flying. (See FIG 5−4−1.)

c. The Minimum Safe Altitudes (MSA) is published for emergency use on IAP or departure procedure (DP)

graphic charts. MSAs provide 1,000 feet of clearance over all obstacles, but do not necessarily assure acceptable

navigation signal coverage. The MSA depiction on the plan view of an approach chart or on a DP graphic chart

contains the identifier of the center point of the MSA, the applicable radius of the MSA, a depiction of the

sector(s), and the minimum altitudes above mean sea level which provide obstacle clearance. For conventional

navigation systems, the MSA is normally based on the primary omnidirectional facility on which the IAP or DP

graphic chart is predicated, but may be based on the airport reference point (ARP) if no suitable facility is

available. For RNA V approaches or DP graphic charts, the MSA is based on an RNA V waypoint. MSAs normally

have a 25 NM radius; however, for conventional navigation systems, this radius may be expanded to 30 NM if

necessary to encompass the airport landing surfaces. A single sector altitude is normally established, however

when the MSA is based on a facility and it is necessary to obtain relief from obstacles, an MSA with up to four

sectors may be established.

Arrival Procedures 5−4−9

AIM 2/20/25

FIG 5−4−1

Instrument Approach Procedure Stepdown Fixes

d. Terminal Arrival Area (TAA)

1. The TAA provides a transition from the en route structure to the terminal environment with little required

pilot/air traffic control interface for aircraft equipped with Area Navigation (RNA V) systems. A TAA provides

minimum altitudes with standard obstacle clearance when operating within the TAA boundaries. TAAs are

primarily used on RNA V approaches but may be used on an ILS approach when RNA V is the sole means for

navigation to the IF; however, they are not normally used in areas of heavy concentration of air traffic.

2. The basic design of the RNAV procedure underlying the TAA is normally the “T” design (also called the

“Basic T”). The “T” design incorporates two IAFs plus a dual purpose IF/IAF that functions as both an

intermediate fix and an initial approach fix. The T configuration continues from the IF/IAF to the final approach

fix (FAF) and then to the missed approach point (MAP). The two base leg IAFs are typically aligned in a

straight-line perpendicular to the intermediate course connecting at the IF/IAF. A Hold-in-Lieu-of Procedure

Turn (HILPT) is anchored at the IF/IAF and depicted on U.S. Government publications using the “hold−in−lieu

−of−PT” holding pattern symbol. When the HILPT is necessary for course alignment and/or descent, the dual

purpose IF/IAF serves as an IAF during the entry into the pattern. Following entry into the HILPT pattern and

when flying a route or sector labeled “NoPT,” the dual-purpose fix serves as an IF, marking the beginning of the

Intermediate Segment. See FIG 5−4−2 and FIG 5−4−3 for the Basic “T” TAA configuration.

Arrival Procedures5−4−10

2/20/25 AIM

FIG 5−4−2

Basic “T” Design

FIG 5−4−3

Basic “T” Design

3. The standard TAA based on the “T” design consists of three areas defined by the Initial Approach Fix

(IAF) legs and the intermediate segment course beginning at the IF/IAF. These areas are called the straight−in,

Arrival Procedures 5−4−11

AIM 2/20/25

left−base, and right−base areas. (See FIG 5−4−4). TAA area lateral boundaries are identified by magnetic courses

TO the IF/IAF. The straight−in area can be further divided into pie−shaped sectors with the boundaries identified

by magnetic courses TO the (IF/ IAF), and may contain stepdown sections defined by arcs based on RNA V

distances from the IF/IAF. (See FIG 5−4−5). The right/left−base areas can only be subdivided using arcs based

on RNA V distances from the IAFs for those areas.

FIG 5−4−4

TAA Area

4. Entry from the terminal area onto the procedure is normally accomplished via a no procedure turn (NoPT)

routing or via a course reversal maneuver. The published procedure will be annotated “NoPT” to indicate when

the course reversal is not authorized when flying within a particular TAA sector. Otherwise, the pilot is expected

to execute the course reversal under the provisions of 14 CFR section 91.175. The pilot may elect to use the course

reversal pattern when it is not required by the procedure, but must receive clearance from air traffic control before

beginning the procedure.

(a) ATC should not clear an aircraft to the left base leg or right base leg IAF within a TAA at an intercept

angle exceeding 90 degrees. Pilots must not execute the HILPT course reversal when the sector or procedure

segment is labeled “NoPT.”

(b) ATC may clear aircraft direct to the fix labeled IF/IAF if the course to the IF/IAF is within the

straight-in sector labeled “NoPT” and the intercept angle does not exceed 90 degrees. Pilots are expected to

proceed direct to the IF/IAF and accomplish a straight-in approach. Do not execute HILPT course reversal. Pilots

are also expected to fly the straight−in approach when ATC provides radar vectors and monitoring to the IF/IAF

and issues a “straight-in” approach clearance; otherwise, the pilot is expected to execute the HILPT course

reversal.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 5−4−6, Approach Clearance.

(c) On rare occasions, ATC may clear the aircraft for an approach at the airport without specifying the

approach procedure by name or by a specific approach (for example, “cleared RNA V Runway 34 approach”)

without specifying a particular IAF. In either case, the pilot should proceed direct to the IAF or to the IF/IAF

Arrival Procedures5−4−12

2/20/25 AIM

associated with the sector that the aircraft will enter the TAA and join the approach course from that point and

if required by that sector (i.e., sector is not labeled “NoPT), complete the HILPT course reversal.

NOTE−

If approaching with a TO bearing that is on a sector boundary, the pilot is expected to proceed in accordance with a “NoPT”

routing unless otherwise instructed by ATC.

5. Altitudes published within the TAA replace the MSA altitude. However, unlike MSA altitudes the TAA

altitudes are operationally usable altitudes. These altitudes provide at least 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance, more

in mountainous areas. It is important that the pilot knows which area of the TAA the aircraft will enter in order

to comply with the minimum altitude requirements. The pilot can determine which area of the TAA the aircraft

will enter by determining the magnetic bearing of the aircraft TO the fix labeled IF/IAF. The bearing should then

be compared to the published lateral boundary bearings that define the TAA areas. Do not use magnetic bearing

to the right-base or left-base IAFs to determine position.

(a) An A TC clearance direct to an IAF or to the IF/IAF without an approach clearance does not authorize

a pilot to descend to a lower TAA altitude. If a pilot desires a lower altitude without an approach clearance, request

the lower TAA altitude from ATC. Pilots not sure of the clearance should confirm their clearance with ATC or

request a specific clearance. Pilots entering the TAA with two −way radio communications failure (14 CFR

section 91.185, IFR Operations: Two−way Radio Communications Failure), must maintain the highest altitude

prescribed by section 91.185(c)(2) until arriving at the appropriate IAF.

(b) Once cleared for the approach, pilots may descend in the TAA sector to the minimum altitude depicted

within the defined area/subdivision, unless instructed otherwise by air traffic control. Pilots should plan their

descent within the TAA to permit a normal descent from the IF/IAF to the FAF. In FIG 5−4−5, pilots within the

left or right−base areas are expected to maintain a minimum altitude of 6,000 feet until within 17 NM of the

associated IAF. After crossing the 17 NM arc, descent is authorized to the lower charted altitudes. Pilots

approaching from the northwest are expected to maintain a minimum altitude of 6,000 feet, and when within 22

NM of the IF/IAF, descend to a minimum altitude of 2,000 feet MSL until crossing the IF/IAF.

FIG 5−4−5

Sectored TAA Areas

6. U.S. Government charts depict TAAs using icons located in the plan view outside the depiction of the

actual approach procedure. (See FIG 5−4−6). Use of icons is necessary to avoid obscuring any portion of the “T”

Arrival Procedures 5−4−13

AIM 2/20/25

procedure (altitudes, courses, minimum altitudes, etc.). The icon for each TAA area will be located and oriented

on the plan view with respect to the direction of arrival to the approach procedure, and will show all TAA

minimum altitudes and sector/radius subdivisions. The IAF for each area of the TAA is included on the icon

where it appears on the approach to help the pilot orient the icon to the approach procedure. The IAF name and

the distance of the TAA area boundary from the IAF are included on the outside arc of the TAA area icon.

Arrival Procedures5−4−14

2/20/25 AIM

FIG 5−4−6

RNA V (GPS) Approach Chart

SW−1, 27 JAN 2022 to 24 FEB 2022

SW−1, 27 JAN 2022 to 24 FEB 2022

Arrival Procedures 5−4−15

AIM 2/20/25

7. TAAs may be modified from the standard size and shape to accommodate operational or ATC

requirements. Some areas may be eliminated, while the other areas are expanded. The “T” design may be

modified by the procedure designers where required by terrain or ATC considerations. For instance, the “T”

design may appear more like a regularly or irregularly shaped “Y ,” upside down “L,” or an “I.”

(a) FIG 5−4−7 depicts a TAA without a left base leg and right base leg. In this generalized example, pilots

approaching on a bearing TO the IF/IAF from 271 clockwise to 089 are expected to execute a course reversal

because the amount of turn required at the IF/IAF exceeds 90 degrees. The term “NoPT” will be annotated on

the boundary of the TAA icon for the other portion of the TAA.

FIG 5−4−7

TAA with Left and Right Base Areas Eliminated

(b) FIG 5−4−8 depicts another TAA modification that pilots may encounter. In this generalized example,

the left base area and part of the straight-in area have been eliminated. Pilots operating within the TAA between

210 clockwise to 360 bearing TO the IF/IAF are expected to proceed direct to the IF/IAF and then execute the

course reversal in order to properly align the aircraft for entry onto the intermediate segment or to avoid an

excessive descent rate. Aircraft operating in areas from 001 clockwise to 090 bearing TO the IF/IAF are expected

to proceed direct to the right base IAF and not execute course reversal maneuver. Aircraft cleared direct the

IF/IAF by ATC in this sector will be expected to accomplish HILTP. Aircraft operating in areas 091 clockwise

to 209 bearing TO the IF/IAF are expected to proceed direct to the IF/IAF and not execute the course reversal.

These two areas are annotated “NoPT” at the TAA boundary of the icon in these areas when displayed on the

approach chart’s plan view.

Arrival Procedures5−4−16

2/20/25 AIM

FIG 5−4−8

TAA with Left Base and Part of Straight−In Area Eliminated

(c) FIG 5−4−9 depicts a TAA with right base leg and part of the straight-in area eliminated.

FIG 5−4−9

TAA with Right Base Eliminated

Arrival Procedures 5−4−17

AIM 2/20/25

8. When an airway does not cross the lateral TAA boundaries, a feeder route will be established from an

airway fix or NA VAID to the TAA boundary to provide a transition from the en route structure to the appropriate

IAF. Each feeder route will terminate at the TAA boundary and will be aligned along a path pointing to the

associated IAF. Pilots should descend to the TAA altitude after crossing the TAA boundary and cleared for the

approach by ATC. (See FIG 5−4−10).

FIG 5−4−10

Examples of a TAA with Feeders from an Airway

9. Each waypoint on the “T” is assigned a pronounceable 5 −letter name, except the missed approach

waypoint. These names are used for ATC communications, RNA V databases, and aeronautical navigation

products. The missed approach waypoint is assigned a pronounceable name when it is not located at the runway

threshold.

Arrival Procedures5−4−18

2/20/25 AIM

FIG 5−4−11

Minimum Vectoring Altitude Charts

e. Minimum Vectoring Altitudes (MV As) are established for use by ATC when radar ATC is exercised.

MV A charts are prepared by air traffic facilities at locations where there are numerous different minimum IFR

altitudes. Each MV A chart has sectors large enough to accommodate vectoring of aircraft within the sector at

the MV A. Each sector boundary is at least 3 miles from the obstruction determining the MV A. To avoid a large

sector with an excessively high MV A due to an isolated prominent obstruction, the obstruction may be enclosed

in a buffer area whose boundaries are at least 3 miles from the obstruction. This is done to facilitate vectoring

around the obstruction. (See FIG 5−4−11.)

1. The minimum vectoring altitude in each sector provides 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle in

nonmountainous areas and 2,000 feet above the highest obstacle in designated mountainous areas. Where lower

MV As are required in designated mountainous areas to achieve compatibility with terminal routes or to permit

vectoring to an IAP, 1,000 feet of obstacle clearance may be authorized with the use of ATC surveillance. The

minimum vectoring altitude will provide at least 300 feet above the floor of controlled airspace.

NOTE−

OROCA is a published altitude which provides 1,000 feet of terrain and obstruction clearance in the U.S. (2,000 feet of

clearance in designated mountainous areas). These altitudes are not assessed for NAVAID signal coverage, air traffic

control surveillance, or communications coverage, and are published for general situational awareness, flight planning and

in−flight contingency use.

2. Because of differences in the areas considered for MV A, and those applied to other minimum altitudes,

and the ability to isolate specific obstacles, some MV As may be lower than the nonradar Minimum En Route

Altitudes (MEAs), Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitudes (MOCAs) or other minimum altitudes depicted

on charts for a given location. While being radar vectored, IFR altitude assignments by ATC will be at or above

MV A.

3. The MV A/MIA may be lower than the TAA minimum altitude. If ATC has assigned an altitude to an

aircraft that is below the TAA minimum altitude, the aircraft will either be assigned an altitude to maintain until

established on a segment of a published route or instrument approach procedure, or climbed to the TAA altitude.

f. Circling. Circling minimums charted on an RNA V (GPS) approach chart may be lower than the

LNA V/VNA V line of minima, but never lower than the LNA V line of minima (straight-in approach). Pilots may

Arrival Procedures 5−4−19

AIM 2/20/25

safely perform the circling maneuver at the circling published line of minima if the approach and circling

maneuver is properly performed according to aircraft category and operational limitations.

FIG 5−4−12

Example of LNA V and Circling Minima Lower Than LNA V/VNA V DA.

Harrisburg International RNA V (GPS) RWY 13

CATEGORY A B C D

LPV DA 558/24 250 (300 − ½)

LNA V/

VNA V DA 1572 − 5 1264 (1300 − 5)

LNA V MDA 1180 / 24

872 (900 − ½)

1180 / 40

872 (900 − ¾)

1180 / 2

872 (900 − 2)

1180 / 2 ¼

872 (900 − 2 ¼)

CIRCLING 1180 − 1

870 (900 − 1)

1180 − 1 ¼

870 (900 − 1 ¼)

1180 − 2 ½

870 (900 − 2 ½)

1180 − 2 ¾

870 (900 − 2 ¾)

FIG 5−4−13

Explanation of LNA V and/or Circling Minima Lower than LNA V/VNA V DA

g. FIG 5−4−13 provides a visual representation of an obstacle evaluation and calculation of LNA V MDA,

Circling MDA, LNA V/VNA V DA.

1. No vertical guidance (LNA V). A line is drawn horizontal at obstacle height and 250 feet added for

Required Obstacle Clearance (ROC). The controlling obstacle used to determine LNAV MDA can be different

than the controlling obstacle used in determining ROC for circling MDA. Other factors may force a number

larger than 250 ft to be added to the LNA V OCS. The number is rounded up to the next higher 20 foot increment.

2. Circling MDA. The circling MDA will provide 300 foot obstacle clearance within the area considered

for obstacle clearance and may be lower than the LNAV/VNA V DA, but never lower than the straight in LNA V

MDA. This may occur when different controlling obstacles are used or when other controlling factors force the

LNA V MDA to be higher than 250 feet above the LNA V OCS. In FIG 5−4−12, the required obstacle clearance

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2/20/25 AIM

for both the LNA V and Circle resulted in the same MDA, but lower than the LNA V/VNA V DA. FIG 5−4−13

provides an illustration of this type of situation.

3. Vertical guidance (LNA V/VNA V). A line is drawn horizontal at obstacle height until reaching the

obstacle clearance surface (OCS). At the OCS, a vertical line is drawn until reaching the glide path. This is the

DA for the approach. This method places the offending obstacle in front of the LNA V/VNA V DA so it can be

seen and avoided. In some situations, this may result in the LNAV/VNA V DA being higher than the LNA V and/or

Circling MDA.

h. The Visual Descent Point (VDP), identified by the symbol (V), is a defined point on the final approach

course of a nonprecision straight−in approach procedure from which a stabilized visual descent from the MDA

to the runway touchdown point may be commenced. The pilot should not descend below the MDA prior to

reaching the VDP. The VDP will be identified by DME or RNA V along−track distance to the MAP. The VDP

distance is based on the lowest MDA published on the IAP and harmonized with the angle of the visual glide

slope indicator (VGSI) (if installed) or the procedure VDA (if no VGSI is installed). A VDP may not be published

under certain circumstances which may result in a destabilized descent between the MDA and the runway

touchdown point. Such circumstances include an obstacle penetrating the visual surface between the MDA and

runway threshold, lack of distance measuring capability, or the procedure design prevents a VDP to be identified.

1. VGSI systems may be used as a visual aid to the pilot to determine if the aircraft is in a position to make

a stabilized descent from the MDA. When the visibility is close to minimums, the VGSI may not be visible at

the VDP due to its location beyond the MAP.

2. Pilots not equipped to receive the VDP should fly the approach procedure as though no VDP had been

provided.

3. On a straight-in nonprecision IAP, descent below the MDA between the VDP and the MAP may be

inadvisable or impossible. Aircraft speed, height above the runway, descent rate, amount of turn, and runway

length are some of the factors which must be considered by the pilot to determine if a safe descent and landing

can be accomplished.

i. A visual segment obstruction evaluation is accomplished during procedure design on all IAPs. Obstacles

(both lighted and unlighted ) are allowed to penetrat e the visual segment obst acle identification surfaces.

Identified obstacle penetrations may cause restrictions to instrument approach operations which may include an

increased approach visibility requirement, not publishing a VDP, and/or prohibiting night instrument operations

to the runway. There is no implicit obstacle protection from the MDA/DA to the touchdown point. Accordingly,

it is the responsibility of the pilot to visually acquire and avoid obstacles below the MDA/DA during transition

to landing.

1. Unlighted obstacle penetrations may result in prohibiting night instrument operations to the runway. A

chart note will be published in the pilot briefing strip “Procedure NA at Night.”

2. Use of a VGSI may be approved in lieu of obstruction lighting to restore night instrument operations to

the runway. A chart note will be published in the pilot briefing strip “ Straight-in Rwy XX at Night, operational

VGSI required, remain on or above VGSI glidepath until threshold.”

j. The highest obstacle (man-made, terrain, or vegetation) will be charted on the planview of an IAP. Other

obstacles may be charted in either the planview or the airport sketch based on distance from the runway and

available chart space. The elevation of the charted obstacle will be shown to the nearest foot above mean sea level.

Obstacles without a verified accuracy are indicated by a ± symbol following the elevation value.

k. Vertical Descent Angle (VDA). FAA policy is to publish a VDA/TCH on all nonprecision approaches

except those published in conjunction with vertically guided minimums (i.e., ILS or LOC RWY XX) or no-FAF

procedures without a step-down fix (i.e., on −airport VOR or NDB). A VDA does not guarantee obstacle

protection below the MDA in the visual segment. The presence of a VDA does not change any nonprecision

approach requirements.

1. Obstacles may penetrate the obstacle identification surface below the MDA in the visual segment of an

IAP that has a published VDA/TCH. When the VDA/TCH is not authorized due to an obstacle penetration that

Arrival Procedures 5−4−21

AIM 2/20/25

would require a pilot to deviate from the VDA between MDA and touchdown, the VDA/TCH will be replaced

with the note “Visual Segment- Obstacles” in the profile view of the IAP (See FIG 5−4−14). Accordingly, pilots

are advised to carefully review approach procedures to identify where the optimum stabilized descent to landing

can be initiated. Pilots that follow the previously published descent angle, provided by the RNA V system, below

the MDA on procedures with this note may encounter obstacles in the visual segment. Pilots must visually avoid

any obstacles below the MDA.

(a) VDA/TCH data is furnished by FAA on the official source document for publication on IAP charts

and for coding in the navigation database unless, as noted previously, replaced by the note “Visual Segment –

Obstacles.”

(b) Commercial chart providers and navigation systems may publish or calculate a VDA/TCH even when

the FAA does not provide such data. Pilots are cautioned that they are responsible for obstacle avoidance in the

visual segment regardless of the presence or absence of a VDA/TCH and associated navigation system advisory

vertical guidance.

2. The threshold crossing height (TCH) used to compute the descent angle is published with the VDA. The

VDA and TCH information are charted on the profile view of the IAP following the fix (FAF/stepdown) used

to compute the VDA. If no PA/APV IAP is established to the same runway, the VDA will be equal to or higher

than the glide path angle of the VGSI installed on the same runway provided it is within instrument procedure

criteria. A chart note will indicate if the VGSI is not coincident with the VDA. Pilots must be aware that the

published VDA is for advisory information only and not to be considered instrument procedure derived vertical

guidance. The VDA solely offers an aid to help pilots establish a continuous, stabilized descent during final

approach.

3. Pilots may use the published angle and estimated/actual groundspeed to find a target rate of descent from

the rate of descent table published in the back of the U.S. Terminal Procedures Publication. This rate of descent

can be flown with the Vertical Velocity Indicator (VVI) in order to use the VDA as an aid to flying a stabilized

descent. No special equipment is required.

FIG 5−4−14

Example of a Chart Note

4. A straight−in aligned procedure may be restricted to circling only minimums when an excessive descent

gradient necessitates. The descent angle between the FAF/stepdown fix and the Circling MDA must not exceed

the maximum descent angle allowed by TERPS criteria. A published VDA on these procedures does not imply

that landing straight ahead is recommended or even possible. The descent rate based on the VDA may exceed

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2/20/25 AIM

the capabilities of the aircraft and the pilot must determine how to best maneuver the aircraft within the circling

area in order to land safely.

l. In isolated cases, an IAP may contain a published visual flight path. These procedures are annotated “Fly

Visual to Airport” or “Fly Visual.” A dashed arrow indicating the visual flight path will be included in the profile

and plan views with a defined flightpath or approximate heading and distance to the end of the runway.

1. The depicted ground track or flightpath associated with the “Fly Visual to Airport” segment should be

flown with flight instrumentation (when advisory lateral and vertical guidance is provided) and/or pilotage or

dead reckoning navigation techniques. When executing the “Fly Visual to Airport” segment, the flight visibility

must not be less than that prescribed in the IAP; the pilot must remain clear of clouds and proceed to the airport

maintaining visual contact with the ground. Altitude on the visual flight path is at the discretion of the pilot, and

recommended altitudes may be shown, but it is the responsibility of the pilot to visually acquire and avoid

obstacles in the “Fly Visual to Airport” segment.

2. Missed approach obstacle clearance is assured only if the missed approach is commenced at or above the

MDA/DA and flown from the published MAP. Before initiating an IAP that contains a “Fly Visual to Airport”

segment, the pilot should have preplanned climb out options based on aircraft performance and terrain features.

Obstacle clearance is the responsibility of the pilot when the missed approach maneuver is initiated below the

MDA/DA or when the approach is continued beyond the MAP.

NOTE−

The FAA Administrator retains the authority to approve instrument approach procedures where the pilot, on arrival at the

MDA/DA on the prescribed flightpath, may not necessarily have one of the visual references specified in 14 CFR § 91.175

and related rules. While it is not a function of procedure design to ensure compliance with § 91.175, the pilot is always

required to assess prevailing flight visibility against the published minima. When published on the procedure, the annotation

“Fly Visual to Airport” provides specific relief only from §91.175 (c)(3)(i) through (x) requirements that the pilot have

distinctly visible and identifiable visual references prior to descent below MDA/DA.

m. Area Navigation (RNA V) Instrument Approach Charts. Reliance on RNA V systems for instrument

operations is becoming more commonplace as new systems such as GPS and augmented GPS such as the Wide

Area Augmentation System (WAAS) are developed and deployed. In order to support full integration of RNA V

procedures into the National Airspace System (NAS), the FAA developed a new charting format for IAPs (See

FIG 5−4−6). This format avoids unnecessary duplication and proliferation of instrument approach charts. The

original stand alone GPS charts, titled simply “GPS,” are being converted to the newer format as the procedures

are revised. One reason for the revision is the addition of WAAS based minima to the approach chart. The

reformatted approach chart is titled “RNA V (GPS) RWY XX.” Up to four lines of minima are included on these

charts. Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) Landing System (GLS) was a placeholder for future

WAAS and LAAS minima, and the minima was always listed as N/A. The GLS minima line has now been

replaced by the WAAS LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance) minima on most RNA V (GPS)

charts. LNA V/VNA V (lateral navigation/vertical navigation) was added to support both WAAS electronic

vertical guidance and Barometric VNA V . LPV and LNA V/VNA V are both APV procedures as described in

paragraph 5−4−5a7. The original GPS minima, titled “S −XX,” for straight in runway XX, is retitled LNA V

(lateral navigation). Circling minima may also be published. A new type of nonprecision WAAS minima will

also be published on this chart and titled LP (localizer performance). LP will be published in locations where

vertically guided minima cannot be provided due to terrain and obstacles and therefore, no LPV or LNAV/VNA V

minima will be published. GBAS procedures are published on a separate chart and the GLS minima line is to

be used only for GBAS. ATC clearance for the RNA V procedure authorizes a properly certified pilot to utilize

any minimums for which the aircraft is certified (for example, a WAAS equipped aircraft utilizes the LPV or LP

minima but a GPS only aircraft may not). The RNA V chart includes information formatted for quick reference

by the pilot or flight crew at the top of the chart. This portion of the chart, developed based on a study by the

Department of Transportation, Volpe National Transportation System Center, is commonly referred to as the pilot

briefing.

1. The minima lines are:

Arrival Procedures 5−4−23

AIM 2/20/25

(a) GLS. “GLS” is the acronym for GBAS Landing System. The U.S. version of GBAS has traditionally

been referred to as LAAS. The worldwide community has adopted GBAS as the official term for this type of

navigation system. To coincide with international terminology, the FAA is also adopting the term GBAS to be

consistent with the international community. This line was originally published as a placeholder for both WAAS

and LAAS minima and marked as N/A since no minima was published. As the concepts for GBAS and WAAS

procedure publication have evolved, GLS will now be used only for GBAS minima, which will be on a separate

approach chart. Most RNA V(GPS) approach charts have had the GLS minima line replaced by a WAAS LPV

line of minima.

(b) LPV . “LPV” is the acronym for localizer performance with vertical guidance. RNA V (GPS)

approaches to LPV lines of minima take advantage of the improved accuracy of WAAS lateral and vertical

guidance to provide an approach that is very similar to a Category I Instrument Landing System (ILS). The

approach to LPV line of minima is designed for angular guidance with increasing sensitivity as the aircraft gets

closer to the runway. The sensitivities are nearly identical to those of the ILS at similar distances. This was done

intentionally to allow the skills required to proficiently fly an ILS to readily transfer to flying RNA V (GPS)

approaches to the LPV line of minima. Just as with an ILS, the LPV has vertical guidance and is flown to a DA.

Aircraft can fly this minima line with a statement in the Aircraft Flight Manual that the installed equipment

supports LPV approaches. This includes Class 3 and 4 TSO−C146 GPS/WAAS equipment.

(c) LNA V/VNA V . LNA V/VNA V identifies APV minimums developed to accommodate an RNA V IAP

with vertical guidance, usually provided by approach certified Baro−VNA V, but with lateral and vertical integrity

limits larger than a precision approach or LPV . LNA V stands for Lateral Navigation; VNA V stands for V ertical

Navigation. This minima line can be flown by aircraft with a statement in the Aircraft Flight Manual that the

installed equipment supports GPS approaches and has an approach−approved barometric VNA V, or if the aircraft

has been demonstrated to support LNA V/VNA V approaches. This includes Class 2, 3 and 4 TSO −C146

GPS/WAAS equipment. Aircraft using LNA V/VNA V minimums will descend to landing via an internally

generated descent path based on satellite or other approach approved VNA V systems. Since electronic vertical

guidance is provided, the minima will be published as a DA. Other navigation systems may be specifically

authorized to use this line of minima. (See Section A, Terms/Landing Minima Data, of the U.S. Terminal

Procedures books.)

(d) LP. “LP” is the acronym for localizer performance. Approaches to LP lines of minima take advantage

of the improved accuracy of WAAS to provide approaches, with lateral guidance and angular guidance. Angular

guidance does not refer to a glideslope angle but rather to the increased lateral sensitivity as the aircraft gets closer

to the runway, similar to localizer approaches. However, the LP line of minima is a Minimum Descent Altitude

(MDA) rather than a DA (H). Procedures with LP lines of minima will not be published with another approach

that contains approved vertical guidance (LNAV/VNA V or LPV). It is possible to have LP and LNAV published

on the same approach chart but LP will only be published if it provides lower minima than an LNA V line of

minima. LP is not a fail−down mode for LPV . LP will only be published if terrain, obstructions, or some other

reason prevent publishing a vertically guided procedure. WAAS avionics may provide GNSS−based advisory

vertical guidance during an approach to an LP line of minima. Barometric altimeter information remains the

primary altitude reference for complying with any altitude restrictions. WAAS equipment may not support LP,

even if it supports LPV , if it was approved before TSO−C145b and TSO−C146b. Receivers approved under

previous TSOs may require an upgrade by the manufacturer in order to be used to fly to LP minima. Receivers

approved for LP must have a statement in the approved Flight Manual or Supplemental Flight Manual including

LP as one of the approved approach types.

(e) LNA V . This minima is for lateral navigation only, and the approach minimum altitude will be

published as a minimum descent altitude (MDA). LNA V provides the same level of service as the present GPS

stand alone approaches. LNA V minimums support the following navigation systems: WAAS, when the

navigation solution will not support vertical navigation; and, GPS navigation systems which are presently

authorized to conduct GPS approaches.

NOTE−

GPS receivers approved for approach operations in accordance with: AC 20−138, Airworthiness Approval of Positioning

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2/20/25 AIM

and Navigation Systems, qualify for this minima. WAAS navigation equipment must be approved in accordance with the

requirements specified in TSO−C145() or TSO−C146() and installed in accordance with Advisory Circular AC 20−138.

2. Other systems may be authorized to utilize these approaches. See the description in Section A of the U.S.

Terminal Procedures books for details. Operational approval must also be obtained for Baro−VNA V systems to

operate to the LNA V/VNAV minimums. Baro−VNA V may not be authorized on some approaches due to other

factors, such as no local altimeter source being available. Baro−VNA V is not authorized on LPV procedures.

Pilots are directed to their local Flight Standards District Office (FSDO) for additional information.

NOTE−

RNAV and Baro−VNAV systems must have a manufacturer supplied electronic database which must include the waypoints,

altitudes, and vertical data for the procedure to be flown. The system must be able to retrieve the procedure by name from

the aircraft navigation database, not just as a manually entered series of waypoints.

3. ILS or RNA V (GPS) charts.

(a) Some RNA V (GPS) charts will also contain an ILS line of minima to make use of the ILS precision

final in conjunction with the RNA V GPS capabilities for the portions of the procedure prior to the final approach

segment and for the missed approach. Obstacle clearance for the portions of the procedure other than the final

approach segment is still based on GPS criteria.

NOTE−

Some GPS receiver installations inhibit GPS navigation whenever ANY ILS frequency is tuned. Pilots flying aircraft with

receivers installed in this manner must wait until they are on the intermediate segment of the procedure prior to the PF AF

(PF AF is the active waypoint) to tune the ILS frequency and must tune the ILS back to a VOR frequency in order to fly the

GPS based missed approach.

(b) Charting. There are charting differences between ILS, RNA V (GPS), and GLS approaches.

(1) The LAAS procedure is titled “GLS RWY XX” on the approach chart.

(2) The VDB provides information to the airborne receiver where the guidance is synthesized.

(3) The LAAS procedure is identified by a four alpha−numeric character field referred to as the RPI

or approach ID and is similar to the IDENT feature of the ILS.

(4) The RPI is charted.

(5) Most RNA V(GPS) approach charts have had the GLS (NA) minima line replaced by an LPV line

of minima.

(6) Since the concepts for LAAS and WAAS procedure publication have evolved, GLS will now be

used only for LAAS minima, which will be on a separate approach chart.

4. Required Navigation Performance (RNP).

(a) Pilots are advised to refer to the “TERMS/LANDING MINIMUMS DATA” (Section A) of the U.S.

Government Terminal Procedures books for aircraft approach eligibility requirements by specific RNP level

requirements.

(b) Some aircraft have RNP approval in their AFM without a GPS sensor. The lowest level of sensors

that the FAA will support for RNP service is DME/DME. However, necessary DME signal may not be available

at the airport of intended operations. For those locations having an RNA V chart published with LNA V/VNA V

minimums, a procedure note may be provided such as “DME/DME RNP−0.3 NA.” This means that RNP aircraft

dependent on DME/DME to achieve RNP−0.3 are not authorized to conduct this approach. Where DME facility

availability is a factor, the note may read “DME/DME RNP−0.3 Authorized; ABC and XYZ Required.” This

means that ABC and XYZ facilities have been determined by flight inspection to be required in the navigation

solution to assure RNP−0.3. VOR/DME updating must not be used for approach procedures.

5. Chart Terminology.

(a) Decision Altitude (DA) replaces the familiar term Decision Height (DH). DA conforms to the

international convention where altitudes relate to MSL and heights relate to AGL. DA will eventually be

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AIM 2/20/25

published for other types of instrument approach procedures with vertical guidance, as well. DA indicates to the

pilot that the published descent profile is flown to the DA (MSL), where a missed approach will be initiated if

visual references for landing are not established. Obstacle clearance is provided to allow a momentary descent

below DA while transitioning from the final approach to the missed approach. The aircraft is expected to follow

the missed instructions while continuing along the published final approach course to at least the published

runway threshold waypoint or MAP (if not at the threshold) before executing any turns.

(b) Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) has been in use for many years, and will continue to be used for

the LNA V only and circling procedures.

(c) Threshold Crossing Height (TCH) has been traditionally used in “precision” approaches as the height

of the glide slope above threshold. With publication of LNA V/VNA V minimums and RNA V descent angles,

including graphically depicted descent profiles, TCH also applies to the height of the “descent angle,” or

glidepath, at the threshold. Unless otherwise required for larger type aircraft which may be using the IAP, the

typical TCH is 30 to 50 feet.

6. The MINIMA FORMAT will also change slightly.

(a) Each line of minima on the RNA V IAP is titled to reflect the level of service available; e.g., GLS, LPV ,

LNA V/VNA V , LP, and LNA V . CIRCLING minima will also be provided.

(b) The minima title box indicates the nature of the minimum altitude for the IAP. For example:

(1) DA will be published next to the minima line title for minimums supporting vertical guidance such

as for GLS, LPV or LNA V/VNA V .

(2) MDA will be published as the minima line on approaches with lateral guidance only, LNA V , or LP .

Descent below the MDA must meet the conditions stated in 14 CFR section 91.175.

(3) Where two or more systems, such as LPV and LNAV/VNA V , share the same minima, each line of

minima will be displayed separately.

7. Chart Symbology changed slightly to include:

(a) Descent Profile. The published descent profile and a graphical depiction of the vertical path to the

runway will be shown. Graphical depiction of the RNA V vertical guidance will differ from the traditional

depiction of an ILS glide slope (feather) through the use of a shorter vertical track beginning at the decision

altitude.

(1) It is FAA policy to design IAPs with minimum altitudes established at fixes/waypoints to achieve

optimum stabilized (constant rate) descents within each procedure segment. This design can enhance the safety

of the operations and contribute toward reduction in the occurrence of controlled flight into terrain (CFIT)

accidents. Additionally, the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) recently emphasized that pilots could

benefit from publication of the appropriate IAP descent angle for a stabilized descent on final approach. The

RNA V IAP format includes the descent angle to the hundredth of a degree; e.g., 3.00 degrees. The angle will be

provided in the graphically depicted descent profile.

(2) The stabilized approach may be performed by reference to vertical navigation information

provided by WAAS or LNA V/VNA V systems; or for LNA V−only systems, by the pilot determining the

appropriate aircraft attitude/groundspeed combination to attain a constant rate descent which best emulates the

published angle. To aid the pilot, U.S. Government Terminal Procedures Publication charts publish an expanded

Rate of Descent Table on the inside of the back hard cover for use in planning and executing precision descents

under known or approximate groundspeed conditions.

(b) Visual Descent Point (VDP). A VDP will be published on most RNA V IAPs. VDPs apply only to

aircraft utilizing LP or LNA V minima, not LPV or LNA V/VNA V minimums.

(c) Missed Approach Symbology. In order to make missed approach guidance more readily

understood, a method has been developed to display missed approach guidance in the profile view through the

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2/20/25 AIM

use of quick reference icons. Due to limited space in the profile area, only four or fewer icons can be shown.

However, the icons may not provide representation of the entire missed approach procedure. The entire set of

textual missed approach instructions are provided at the top of the approach chart in the pilot briefing. (See

FIG 5−4−6).

(d) Waypoints. All RNA V or GPS stand−alone IAPs are flown using data pertaining to the particular

IAP obtained from an onboard database, including the sequence of all WPs used for the approach and missed

approach, except that step down waypoints may not be included in some TSO−C129 receiver databases. Included

in the database, in most receivers, is coding that informs the navigation system of which WPs are fly−over (FO)

or fly−by (FB). The navigation system may provide guidance appropriately − including leading the turn prior

to a fly−by WP; or causing overflight of a fly−over WP. Where the navigation system does not provide such

guidance, the pilot must accomplish the turn lead or waypoint overflight manually. Chart symbology for the FB

WP provides pilot awareness of expected actions. Refer to the legend of the U.S. Terminal Procedures books.

(e) TAAs are described in paragraph 5−4−5d, Terminal Arrival Area (TAA). When published, the RNA V

chart depicts the TAA areas through the use of “icons” representing each TAA area associated with the RNA V

procedure (See FIG 5−4−6). These icons are depicted in the plan view of the approach chart, generally arranged

on the chart in accordance with their position relative to the aircraft’s arrival from the en route structure. The WP,

to which navigation is appropriate and expected within each specific TAA area, will be named and depicted on

the associated TAA icon. Each depicted named WP is the IAF for arrivals from within that area. TAAs may not

be used on all RNA V procedures because of airspace congestion or other reasons.

(f) Published Temperature Limitations. There are currently two temperature limitations that may be

published in the notes box of the middle briefing strip on an instrument approach procedure (IAP). The two

published temperature limitations are:

(1) A temperature range limitation associated with the use of baro−VNA V that may be published on

a United States PBN IAP titled RNA V (GPS) or RNA V (RNP); and/or

(2) A Cold Temperature Airport (CTA) limitation designated by a snowflake ICON and temperature

in Celsius (C) that is published on every IAP for the airfield.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Chapter 7, Section 3, Cold Temperature Barometric Altimeter Errors, Setting Procedures and Cold Temperature Airports (CTA).

(g) WAAS Channel Number/Approach ID. The WAAS Channel Number is an optional equipment

capability that allows the use of a 5−digit number to select a specific final approach segment without using the

menu method. The Approach ID is an airport unique 4−character combination for verifying the selection and

extraction of the correct final approach segment information from the aircraft database. It is similar to the ILS

ident, but displayed visually rather than aurally. The Approach ID consists of the letter W for WAAS, the runway

number, and a letter other than L, C or R, which could be confused with Left, Center and Right, e.g., W35A.

Approach IDs are assigned in the order that WAAS approaches are built to that runway number at that airport.

The W AAS Channel Number and Approach ID are displayed in the upper left corner of the approach procedure

pilot briefing.

(h) At locations where outages of WAAS vertical guidance may occur daily due to initial system

limitations, a negative W symbol (

) will be placed on RNA V (GPS) approach charts. Many of these outages

will be very short in duration, but may result in the disruption of the vertical portion of the approach. The

symbol indicates that NOTAMs or Air Traffic advisories are not provided for outages which occur in the WAAS

LNA V/VNA V or LPV vertical service. Use LNA V or circling minima for flight planning at these locations,

whether as a destination or alternate. For flight operations at these locations, when the WAAS avionics indicate

that LNA V/VNA V or LPV service is available, then vertical guidance may be used to complete the approach

using the displayed level of service. Should an outage occur during the procedure, reversion to LNA V minima

may be required. As the WAAS coverage is expanded, the

will be removed.

NOTE−

Properly trained and approved, as required, TSO-C145() and TSO-C146() equipped users (WAAS users) with and using

Arrival Procedures 5−4−27

AIM 2/20/253/15/077110.65R CHG 2AIM 8/7/25

approved baro-VNAV equipment may plan for LNAV/VNAV DA at an alternate airport. Specifically authorized WAAS users

with and using approved baro-VNAV equipment may also plan for RNP 0.3 DA at the alternate airport as long as the pilot

has verified RNP availability through an approved prediction program.

5−4−6. Approach Clearance

a. An aircraft which has been cleared to a holding fix and subsequently “cleared . . . approach” has not received

new routing. Even though clearance for the approach may have been issued prior to the aircraft reaching the

holding fix, ATC would expect the pilot to proceed via the holding fix (his/her last assigned route), and the feeder

route associated with that fix (if a feeder route is published on the approach chart) to the initial approach fix (IAF)

to commence the approach. WHEN CLEARED FOR THE APPROACH, THE PUBLISHED OFF AIRWAY

(FEEDER) ROUTES THAT LEAD FROM THE EN ROUTE STRUCTURE TO THE IAF ARE P ART OF THE

APPROACH CLEARANCE.

b. If a feeder route to an IAF begins at a fix located along the route of flight prior to reaching the holding fix,

and clearance for an approach is issued, a pilot should commence the approach via the published feeder route;

i.e., the aircraft would not be expected to overfly the feeder route and return to it. The pilot is expected to

commence the approach in a similar manner at the IAF, if the IAF for the procedure is located along the route

of flight to the holding fix.

c. If a route of flight directly to the initial approach fix is desired, it should be so stated by the controller with

phraseology to include the words “direct . . . ,” “proceed direct” or a similar phrase which the pilot can interpret

without question. When uncertain of the clearance, immediately query ATC as to what route of flight is desired.

d. The name of an instrument approach, as published, is used to identify the approach, even though a

component of the approach aid, such as the glideslope on an Instrument Landing System, is inoperative or

unreliable. The controller will use the name of the approach as published, but must advise the aircraft at the time

an approach clearance is issued that the inoperative or unreliable approach aid component is unusable, except

when the title of the published approach procedures otherwise allows; for example, ILS Rwy 05 or LOC Rwy

05.

e. At times A TC may not specify a particular approach procedure in the clearance, but will state “CLEARED

APPROACH.”

1. This clearance indicates the pilot may execute any one of the authorized IAPs for that airport.

2. The clearance may be issued in conjunction with the route to or over an IAF or feeder fix.

3. This clearance does not constitute approval for the pilot to execute a contact approach or a visual

approach to the airport or runway.

f. Except when being vectored to the final approach course, pilots cleared for an IAP are expected to execute

the entire procedure commencing at an IAF or an associated feeder fix as described on the IAP chart. Pilots are

not required to execute the entire procedure if:

1. An appropriate new or revised ATC clearance is received, or

2. The IFR flight plan is canceled.

g. STAR to Approach Connectivity. A STAR may terminate at a fix that is also the IAF or IF for an approach.

When the arrival route instructions as published on the STAR state the pilot can expect the instrument approach

from the STAR terminus fix or approach IAF or IF, pilots are expected to ensure that the RNA V system is loaded

with the approach beginning at that IAF or IF so that the STAR and approach are connected. ATC will clear the

aircraft for the instrument approach by stating the IAF fix/waypoint by name with the approach clearance. This

procedure also applies to aircraft arriving to an airport via other air traffic services (ATS) routes.

EXAMPLE−

“At RDFSH, Cleared ILS Runway 27 Approach”

NOTE−

The fix “RDFSH” is the STAR terminus fix and an IAF for the ILS runway 27 approach at KIAH. Pilots are expected to ensure

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that the ILS Runway 27 approach is loaded in the RNAV system with the RDFSH IAF selected. Pilots are not to select vectors

or vectors to final option when loading the ILS runway 27 approach.

h. The following applies to aircraft on radar vectors and/or cleared “direct to” in conjunction with an approach

clearance:

1. Maintain the last altitude assigned by ATC until the aircraft is established on a published segment of a

transition route, or approach procedure segment, or other published route, for which a lower altitude is published

on the chart. If already on an established route, or approach or arrival segment, you may descend to whatever

minimum altitude is listed for that route or segment.

2. Continue on the vector heading until intercepting the next published ground track applicable to the

approach clearance.

3. Once reaching the final approach fix via the published segments, the pilot may continue on approach to

a landing.

4. If proceeding to an IAF with a published course reversal (procedure turn or hold-in-lieu of PT pattern),

except when cleared for a straight in approach by ATC, the pilot must execute the procedure turn/hold-in-lieu

of PT, and complete the approach.

5. If cleared to an IAF/IF via a NoPT route, or no procedure turn/hold-in-lieu of PT is published, continue

with the published approach.

6. In addition to the above, RNA V aircraft may be issued a clearance direct to the IAF/IF at intercept angles

not greater than 90 degrees for both conventional and RNA V instrument approaches. Controllers may issue a

heading or a course direct to a fix between the IF and FAF at intercept angles not greater than 30 degrees for both

conventional and RNA V instrument approaches. In all cases, controllers will assign altitudes that ensure obstacle

clearance and will permit a normal descent to the FAF. When clearing aircraft direct to the IF, ATC will radar

monitor the aircraft until the IF and will advise the pilot to expect clearance direct to the IF at least 5 miles from

the fix. ATC must issue a straight-in approach clearance when clearing an aircraft direct to an IAF/IF with a

procedure turn or hold−in−lieu of a procedure turn, and ATC does not want the aircraft to execute the course

reversal.

NOTE−

Refer to 14 CFR 91.175 (i).

7. RNA V aircraft may be issued a clearance direct to the FAF that is also charted as an IAF, in which case

the pilot is expected to execute the depicted procedure turn or hold-in-lieu of procedure turn. ATC will not issue

a straight-in approach clearance. If the pilot desires a straight-in approach, they must request vectors to the final

approach course outside of the FAF or fly a published “NoPT” route. When visual approaches are in use, ATC

may clear an aircraft direct to the FAF.

NOTE−

1. In anticipation of a clearance by ATC to any fix published on an instrument approach procedure, pilots of RNAV aircraft

are advised to select an appropriate IAF or feeder fix when loading an instrument approach procedure into the RNAV system.

2. Selection of “Vectors-to-Final” or “Vectors” option for an instrument approach may prevent approach fixes located

outside of the F AF from being loaded into an RNAV system. Therefore, the selection of these options is discouraged due to

increased workload for pilots to reprogram the navigation system.

8. Arrival Holding. Some approach charts have an arrival holding pattern depicted at an IAF or at a feeder

fix located along an airway. The arrival hold is depicted using a “thin line” since it is not always a mandatory

part of the instrument procedure.

(a) Arrival holding is charted where holding is fr equently required prior to starting the approach

procedure so that detailed holding instructions are not required. The arrival holding pattern is not authorized

unless assigned by ATC. Holding at the same fix may also be depicted on the en route chart.

(b) Arrival holding is also charted where it is necessary to use a holding pattern to align the aircraft for

procedure entry from an airway due to turn angle limitations imposed by procedure design standards. When the

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turn angle from an airway into the approach procedure exceeds the permissible limits, an arrival holding pattern

may be published along with a note on the procedure specifying the fix, the airway, and arrival direction where

use of the arrival hold is required for procedure entry. Unlike a hold−in−lieu of procedure turn, use of the arrival

holding pattern is not authorized until assigned by ATC. If A TC does not assign the arrival hold before reaching

the holding fix, the pilot should request the hold for procedure entry. Once established on the inbound holding

course and an approach clearance has been received, the published procedure can commence. Alternatively, if

using the holding pattern for procedure entry is not desired, the pilot may ask ATC for maneuvering airspace to

align the aircraft with the feeder course.

EXAMPLE−

Planview Chart Note: “Proc NA via V343 northeast bound without holding at JOXIT. ATC CLNC REQD.”

i. An RF leg is defined as a constant radius circular path around a defined turn center that starts and terminates

at a fix. An RF leg may be published as part of a procedure. Since not all aircraft have the capability to fly these

leg types, pilots are responsible for knowing if they can conduct an RNA V approach with an RF leg.

Requirements for RF legs will be indicated on the approach chart in the notes section or at the applicable initial

approach fix. Controllers will clear RNAV-equipped aircraft for instrument approach procedures containing RF

legs:

1. Via published transitions, or

2. In accordance with paragraph e6 above, and

3. ATC will not clear aircraft direct to any waypoint beginning or within an RF leg, and will not assign

fix/waypoint crossing speeds in excess of charted speed restrictions.

EXAMPLE−

Controllers will not clear aircraft direct to THIRD because that waypoint begins the RF leg, and aircraft cannot be vectored

or cleared to TURNN or vectored to intercept the approach segment at any point between THIRD and FORTH because this

is the RF leg. (See FIG 5−4−15.)

j. When necessary to cancel a previously issued approach clearance, the controller will advise the pilot

“Cancel Approach Clearance” followed by any additional instructions when applicable.

5−4−7. Instrument Approach Procedures

a. Aircraft approach category means a grouping of aircraft based on a speed of VREF at the maximum certified

landing weight, if specified, or if VREF is not specified, 1.3VSO at the maximum certified landing weight. VREF,

VSO, and the maximum certified landing weight are those values as established for the aircraft by the certification

authority of the country of registry. A pilot must maneuver the aircraft within the circling approach protected

area (see FIG 5−4−27) to achieve the obstacle and terrain clearances provided by procedure design criteria.

b. In addition to pilot techniques for maneuvering, one acceptable method to reduce the risk of flying out of

the circling approach protected area is to use either the minima corresponding to the category determined during

certification or minima associated with a higher category. Helicopters may use Category A minima. If it is

necessary to operate at a speed in excess of the upper limit of the speed range for an aircraft’s category, the

minimums for the higher category should be used. This may occur with certain aircraft types operating in

heavy/gusty wind, icing, or non−normal conditions. For example, an airplane which fits into Category B, but is

circling to land at a speed of 145 knots, should use the approach Category D minimums. As an additional

example, a Category A airplane (or helicopter) which is operating at 130 knots on a straight−in approach should

use the approach Category C minimums.

c. A pilot who chooses an alternative method when it is necessary to maneuver at a speed that exceeds the

category speed limit (for example, where higher category minimums are not published) should consider the

following factors that can significantly affect the actual ground track flown:

1. Bank angle. For example, at 165 knots groundspeed, the radius of turn increases from 4,194 feet using

30 degrees of bank to 6,654 feet when using 20 degrees of bank. When using a shallower bank angle, it may be

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AIM2/20/258/7/25 AIM

necessary to modify the flightpath or indicated airspeed to remain within the circling approach protected area.

Pilots should be aware that excessive bank angle can lead to a loss of aircraft control.

2. Indicated airspeed. Procedure design criteria typically utilize the highest speed for a particular category.

If a pilot chooses to operate at a higher speed, other factors should be modified to ensure that the aircraft remains

within the circling approach protected area.

3. Wind speed and direction. For example, it is not uncommon to maneuver the aircraft to a downwind leg

where the groundspeed will be considerably higher than the indicated airspeed. Pilots must carefully plan the

initiation of all turns to ensure that the aircraft remains within the circling approach protected area.

4. Pilot technique. Pilots frequently have many options with regard to flightpath when conducting circling

approaches. Sound planning and judgment are vital to proper execution. The lateral and vertical path to be flown

should be carefully considered using current weather and terrain information to ensure that the aircraft remains

within the circling approach protected area.

d. It is important to remember that 14 CFR section 91.175(c) requires that “where a DA/DH or MDA is

applicable, no pilot may operate an aircraft below the authorized MDA or continue an approach below the

authorized DA/DH unless the aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a landing on the

intended runway can be made at a normal rate of descent using normal maneuvers, and for operations conducted

under part 121 or part 135 unless that descent rate will allow touchdown to occur within the touchdown zone of

the runway of intended landing.”

e. See the following category limits:

1. Category A: Speed less than 91 knots.

2. Category B: Speed 91 knots or more but less than 121 knots.

3. Category C: Speed 121 knots or more but less than 141 knots.

4. Category D: Speed 141 knots or more but less than 166 knots.

5. Category E: Speed 166 knots or more.

NOTE−

VREF in the above definition refers to the speed used in establishing the approved landing distance under the airworthiness

regulations constituting the type certification basis of the airplane, regardless of whether that speed for a particular airplane

is 1.3 VSO, 1.23 VSR, or some higher speed required for airplane controllability. This speed, at the maximum certificated

landing weight, determines the lowest applicable approach category for all approaches regardless of actual landing weight.

f. When operating on an unpublished route or while being radar vectored, the pilot, when an approach

clearance is received, must, in addition to complying with the minimum altitudes for IFR operations (14 CFR

section 91.177), maintain the last assigned altitude unless a different altitude is assigned by ATC, or until the

aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or IAP. After the aircraft is so established, published

altitudes apply to descent within each succeeding route or approach segment unless a different altitude is assigned

by ATC. Notwithstanding this pilot responsibility, for aircraft operating on unpublished routes or while being

radar vectored, ATC will, except when conducting a radar approach, issue an IFR approach clearance only after

the aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or IAP, or assign an altitude to maintain until the

aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or instrument approach procedure. For this purpose, the

procedure turn of a published IAP must not be considered a segment of that IAP until the aircraft reaches the

initial fix or navigation facility upon which the procedure turn is predicated.

EXAMPLE−

Cross Redding VOR at or above five thousand, cleared VOR runway three four approach.

or

Five miles from outer marker, turn right heading three three zero, maintain two thousand until established on the localizer,

cleared ILS runway three six approach.

NOTE−

1. The altitude assigned will assure IFR obstruction clearance from the point at which the approach clearance is issued until

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AIM 2/20/253/15/077110.65R CHG 2AIM 8/7/25

established on a segment of a published route or IAP . If uncertain of the meaning of the clearance, immediately request

clarification from ATC.

2. An aircraft is not established on an approach while below published approach altitudes. If the MVA/MIA allows, and ATC

assigns an altitude below an IF or IAF altitude, the pilot will be issued an altitude to maintain until past a point that the

aircraft is established on the approach.

g. Several IAPs, using various navigation and approach aids may be authorized for an airport. ATC may advise

that a particular approach procedure is being used, primarily to expedite traffic. If issued a clearance that specifies

a particular approach procedure, notify ATC immediately if a different one is desired. In this event it may be

necessary for ATC to withhold clearance for the different approach until such time as traffic conditions permit.

However, a pilot involved in an emergency situation will be given priority. If the pilot is not familiar with the

specific approach procedure, ATC should be advised and they will provide detailed information on the execution

of the procedure.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 5−4−4, Advance Information on Instrument Approach.

h. The name of an instrument approach, as published, is used to identify the approach, even though a

component of the approach aid, such as the glideslope on an Instrument Landing System, is inoperative or

unreliable. The controller will use the name of the approach as published, but must advise the aircraft at the time

an approach clearance is issued that the inoperative or unreliable approach aid component is unusable, except

when the title of the published approach procedures otherwise allows, for example, ILS or LOC.

i. Pilots planning flights to locations which are private airfields or which have instrument approach procedures

based on private navigation aids should obtain approval from the owner. In addition, the pilot must be authorized

by the FAA to fly special instrument approach procedures associated with private navigation aids (see paragraph

5−4−8). Owners of navigation aids that are not for public use may elect to turn off the signal for whatever reason

they may have; for example, maintenance, energy conservation, etc. Air traffic controllers are not required to

question pilots to determine if they have permission to land at a private airfield or to use procedures based on

privately owned navigation aids, and they may not know the status of the navigation aid. Controllers presume

a pilot has obtained approval from the owner and the FAA for use of special instrument approach procedures and

is aware of any details of the procedure if an IFR flight plan was filed to that airport.

j. Pilots should not rely on radar to identify a fix unless the fix is indicated as “RADAR” on the IAP. Pilots

may request radar identification of an OM, but the controller may not be able to provide the service due either

to workload or not having the fix on the video map.

k. If a missed approach is required, advise ATC and include the reason (unless initiated by ATC). Comply with

the missed approach instructions for the instrument approach procedure being executed, unless otherwise

directed by ATC.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 5−4−21, Missed Approach.

AIM, Para 5−5−5, Missed Approach.

5−4−8. Special Instrument Approach Procedures

Instrument Approach Procedure (IAP) charts reflect the criteria associated with the U.S. Standard for Terminal

Instrument [Approach] Procedures (TERP), which prescribes standardized methods for use in developing IAPs.

Standard IAPs are published in the Federal Register (FR) in accordance with Title 14 of the Code of Federal

Regulations, part 97, and are available for use by appropriately qualified pilots operating properly equipped and

airworthy aircraft in accordance with operating rules and procedures acceptable to the FAA. Special IAPs are

also developed using TERPS but are not given public notice in the FR. The FAA authorizes only certain

individual pilots and/or pilots in individual organizations to use special IAPs, and may require additional crew

training and/or aircraft equipment or performance, and may also require the use of landing aids, communications,

or weather services not available for public use. Additionally, IAPs that service private use airports or heliports

are generally special IAPs. FDC NOTAMs for Specials, FDC T-NOTAMs, may also be used to promulgate

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AIM2/20/258/7/25 AIM

safety-of-flight information relating to Specials provided the location has a valid landing area identifier and is

serviced by the United States NOTAM system. Pilots may access NOTAMs online or through an FAA Flight

Service Station (FSS). FSS specialists will not automatically provide NOTAM information to pilots for special

IAPs during telephone pre−flight briefings. Pilots who are authorized by the FAA to use special IAPs must

specifically request FDC NOTAM information for the particular special IAP they plan to use.

5−4−9. Procedure Turn and Hold −in−lieu of Procedure Turn

a. A procedure turn is the maneuver prescribed when it is necessary to reverse direction to establish the aircraft

inbound on an intermediate or final approach course. The procedure turn or hold−in−lieu−of−PT is a required

maneuver when it is depicted on the approach chart, unless cleared by ATC for a straight −in approach.

Additionally, the procedure turn or hold−in−lieu−of−PT is not permitted when the symbol “No PT” is depicted

on the initial segment being used, when a RADAR VECTOR to the final approach course is provided, or when

conducting a timed approach from a holding fix. The altitude prescribed for the procedure turn is a minimum

altitude until the aircraft is established on the inbound course. The maneuver must be completed within the

distance specified in the profile view. For a hold−in−lieu−of−PT, the holding pattern direction must be flown as

depicted and the specified leg length/timing must not be exceeded.

NOTE−

The pilot may elect to use the procedure turn or hold−in−lieu−of−PT when it is not required by the procedure, but must first

receive an amended clearance from ATC. If the pilot is uncertain whether the ATC clearance intends for a procedure turn

to be conducted or to allow for a straight−in approach, the pilot must immediately request clarification from ATC (14 CFR

section 91.123).

1. On U.S. Government charts, a barbed arrow indicates the maneuvering side of the outbound course on

which the procedure turn is made. Headings are provided for course reversal using the 45 degree type procedure

turn. However, the point at which the turn may be commenced and the type and rate of turn is left to the discretion

of the pilot (limited by the charted remain within xx NM distance). Some of the options are the 45 degree

procedure turn, the racetrack pattern, the teardrop procedure turn, or the 80 degree  260 degree course reversal.

Racetrack entries should be conducted on the maneuvering side where the majority of protected airspace resides.

If an entry places the pilot on the non−maneuvering side of the PT, correction to intercept the outbound course

ensures remaining within protected airspace. Some procedure turns are specified by procedural track. These

turns must be flown exactly as depicted.

2. Descent to the procedure turn (PT) completion altitude from the PT fix altitude (when one has been

published or assigned by ATC) must not begin until crossing over the PT fix or abeam and proceeding outbound.

Some procedures contain a note in the chart profile view that says “Maintain (altitude) or above until established

outbound for procedure turn” (See FIG 5−4−16). Newer procedures will simply depict an “at or above” altitude

at the PT fix without a chart note (See FIG 5−4−17). Both are there to ensure required obstacle clearance is

provided in the procedure turn entry zone (See FIG 5−4−18). Absence of a chart note or specified minimum

altitude adjacent to the PT fix is an indication that descent to the procedure turn altitude can commence

immediately upon crossing over the PT fix, regardless of the direction of flight. This is because the minimum

altitudes in the PT entry zone and the PT maneuvering zone are the same.

Arrival Procedures 5−4−33

AIM 2/20/253/15/077110.65R CHG 2AIM 8/7/25

FIG 5−4−15

Example of an RNA V Approach with RF Leg

FIG 5−4−16

FIG 5−4−17

Arrival Procedures5−4−34

2/20/25 AIM

FIG 5−4−18

3. When the approach procedure involves a procedure turn, a maximum speed of not greater than 200 knots

(IAS) should be observed from first overheading the course reversal IAF through the procedure turn maneuver

to ensure containment within the obstruction clearance area. Pilots should begin the outbound turn immediately

after passing the procedure turn fix. The procedure turn maneuver must be executed within the distance specified

in the profile view. The normal procedure turn distance is 10 miles. This may be reduced to a minimum of 5 miles

where only Category A or helicopter aircraft are to be operated or increased to as much as 15 miles to

accommodate high performance aircraft.

4. A teardrop procedure or penetration turn may be specified in some procedures for a required course

reversal. The teardrop procedure consists of departure from an initial approach fix on an outbound course

followed by a turn toward and intercepting the inbound course at or prior to the intermediate fix or point. Its

purpose is to permit an aircraft to reverse direction and lose considerable altitude within reasonably limited

airspace. Where no fix is available to mark the beginning of the intermediate segment, it must be assumed to

commence at a point 10 miles prior to the final approach fix. When the facility is located on the airport, an aircraft

is considered to be on final approach upon completion of the penetration turn. However, the final approach

segment begins on the final approach course 10 miles from the facility.

Arrival Procedures 5−4−35

AIM 2/20/25

5. A holding pattern in lieu of procedure turn may be specified for course reversal in some procedures. In

such cases, the holding pattern is established over an intermediate fix or a final approach fix. The holding pattern

distance or time specified in the profile view must be observed. For a hold−in−lieu−of−PT, the holding pattern

direction must be flown as depicted and the specified leg length/timing must not be exceeded. Maximum holding

airspeed limitations as set forth for all holding patterns apply. The holding pattern maneuver is completed when

the aircraft is established on the inbound course after executing the appropriate entry. If cleared for the approach

prior to returning to the holding fix, and the aircraft is at the prescribed altitude, additional circuits of the holding

pattern are not necessary nor expected by ATC. If pilots elect to make additional circuits to lose excessive altitude

or to become better established on course, it is their responsibility to so advise ATC upon receipt of their approach

clearance.

6. A procedure turn is not required when an approach can be made directly from a specified intermediate

fix to the final approach fix. In such cases, the term “NoPT” is used with the appropriate course and altitude to

denote that the procedure turn is not required. If a procedure turn is desired, and when cleared to do so by ATC,

descent below the procedure turn altitude should not be made until the aircraft is established on the inbound

course, since some NoPT altitudes may be lower than the procedure turn altitudes.

b. Limitations on Procedure Turns

1. In the case of a radar initial approach to a final approach fix or position, or a timed approach from a

holding fix, or where the procedure specifies NoPT, no pilot may make a procedure turn unless, when final

approach clearance is received, the pilot so advises ATC and a clearance is received to execute a procedure turn.

2. When a teardrop procedure turn is depicted and a course reversal is required, this type turn must be

executed.

3. When a holding pattern replaces a procedure turn, the holding pattern must be followed, except when

RADAR VECTORING is provided or when NoPT is shown on the approach course. The recommended entry

procedures will ensure the aircraft remains within the holding pattern’s protected airspace. As in the procedure

turn, the descent from the minimum holding pattern altitude to the final approach fix altitude (when lower) may

not commence until the aircraft is established on the inbound course. Where a holding pattern is established

in−lieu−of a procedure turn, the maximum holding pattern airspeeds apply.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 5−3−8j2, Holding.

4. The absence of the procedure turn barb in the plan view indicates that a procedure turn is not authorized

for that procedure.

5−4−10. Timed Approaches from a Holding Fix

a. TIMED APPROACHES may be conducted when the following conditions are met:

1. A control tower is in operation at the airport where the approaches are conducted.

2. Direct communications are maintained between the pilot and the center or approach controller until the

pilot is instructed to contact the tower.

3. If more than one missed approach procedure is available, none require a course reversal.

4. If only one missed approach procedure is available, the following conditions are met:

(a) Course reversal is not required; and,

(b) Reported ceiling and visibility are equal to or greater than the highest prescribed circling minimums

for the IAP.

5. When cleared for the approach, pilots must not execute a procedure turn. (14 CFR section 91.175.)

b. Although the controller will not specifically state that “timed approaches are in use,” the assigning of a time

to depart the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision approach) or the outer marker or fix used in lieu of the

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2/20/25 AIM

outer marker inbound (precision approach) is indicative that timed approach procedures are being utilized, or

in lieu of holding, the controller may use radar vectors to the Final Approach Course to establish a mileage

interval between aircraft that will ensure the appropriate time sequence between the final approach fix/outer

marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker and the airport.

c. Each pilot in an approach sequence will be given advance notice as to the time they should leave the holding

point on approach to the airport. When a time to leave the holding point has been received, the pilot should adjust

the flight path to leave the fix as closely as possible to the designated time. (See FIG 5−4−19.)

FIG 5−4−19

Timed Approaches from a Holding Fix

ONE MINUTE

FLYING TIME

APPROXIMATELY 5 MILES

12:03 CLEARANCE RECEIVED

:04 INITIAL TIME

OVER FIX

1000 FT.

1000 FT.

1000 FT.

1000 FT.

:06 1/2

:07 REPORT

LEAVING FINAL

APPROACH TIME

:05 1/2

:05

30 SEC.

REPORT LEAVING

PREVIOUS ALTITUDE FOR

NEW ASSIGNED ALTITUDE

LMMLOM

AIRPORT

Arrival Procedures 5−4−37

AIM 2/20/253/15/077110.65R CHG 2AIM 7/9/26

EXAMPLE−

At 12:03 local time, in the example shown, a pilot holding, receives instructions to leave the fix inbound at 12:07. These

instructions are received just as the pilot has completed turn at the outbound end of the holding pattern and is proceeding

inbound towards the fix. Arriving back over the fix, the pilot notes that the time is 12:04 and that there are 3 minutes to lose

in order to leave the fix at the assigned time. Since the time remaining is more than two minutes, the pilot plans to fly a race

track pattern rather than a 360 degree turn, which would use up 2 minutes. The turns at the ends of the race track pattern

will consume approximately 2 minutes. Three minutes to go, minus 2 minutes required for the turns, leaves 1 minute for level

flight. Since two portions of level flight will be required to get back to the fix inbound, the pilot halves the 1 minute remaining

and plans to fly level for 30 seconds outbound before starting the turn back to the fix on final approach. If the winds were

negligible at flight altitude, this procedure would bring the pilot inbound across the fix precisely at the specified time of

12:07. However, if expecting headwind on final approach, the pilot should shorten the 30 second outbound course somewhat,

knowing that the wind will carry the aircraft away from the fix faster while outbound and decrease the ground speed while

returning to the fix. On the other hand, compensating for a tailwind on final approach, the pilot should lengthen the

calculated 30 second outbound heading somewhat, knowing that the wind would tend to hold the aircraft closer to the fix

while outbound and increase the ground speed while returning to the fix.

5−4−11. Radar Approaches

a. The only airborne radio equipment required for radar approaches is a functioning radio transmitter and

receiver. The radar controller vectors the aircraft to align it with the runway centerline. The controller continues

the vectors to keep the aircraft on course until the pilot can complete the approach and landing by visual reference

to the surface. There are two types of radar approaches: Precision (PAR) and Surveillance (ASR).

b. A radar approach may be given to any aircraft upon request and may be offered to pilots of aircraft in

distress or to expedite traffic, however, an ASR might not be approved unless there is an ATC operational

requirement, or in an unusual or emergency situation. Acceptance of a PAR or ASR by a pilot does not waive

the prescribed weather minimums for the airport or for the particular aircraft operator concerned. The decision

to make a radar approach when the reported weather is below the established minimums rests with the pilot.

c. PAR and ASR minimums are published on separate pages in the FAA Terminal Procedures Publication

(TPP).

1. Precision Approach (PAR). A PAR is one in which a controller provides highly accurate navigational

guidance in azimuth and elevation to a pilot. Pilots are given headings to fly, to direct them to, and keep their

aircraft aligned with the extended centerline of the landing runway. They are told to anticipate glidepath

interception approximately 10 to 30 seconds before it occurs and when to start descent. The published Decision

Altitude (DA) will be given only if the pilot requests it. If the aircraft is observed to deviate above or below the

glidepath, the pilot is given the relative amount of deviation by use of terms “slightly” or “well” and is expected

to adjust the aircraft’s rate of descent/ascent to return to the glidepath. Trend information is also issued with

respect to the elevation of the aircraft and may be modified by the terms “rapidly” and “slowly”; e.g., “well above

glidepath, coming down rapidly.” Range from touchdown is given at least once each mile. If an aircraft is

observed by the controller to proceed outside of specified safety zone limits in azimuth and/or elevation and

continue to operate outside these prescribed limits, the pilot will be directed to execute a missed approach or to

fly a specified course unless the pilot has the runway environment (runway, approach lights, etc.) in sight.

Navigational guidance in azimuth and elevation is provided to the pilot until the aircraft reaches the published

DA. Advisory course and glidepath information is furnished by the controller until the aircraft passes over the

landing threshold, at which point the pilot is advised of any deviation from the runway centerline. Radar service

is automatically terminated upon completion of the approach.

2. Surveillance Approach (ASR). An ASR is one in which a controller provides navigational guidance

in azimuth only. The pilot is furnished headings to fly to align the aircraft with the extended centerline of the

landing runway. Since the radar information used for a surveillance approach is considerably less precise than

that used for a precision approach, the accuracy of the approach will not be as great and higher minimums will

apply. Guidance in elevation is not possible but the pilot will be advised when to commence descent to the

Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) or, if appropriate, to an intermediate step −down fix Minimum Crossing

Arrival Procedures5−4−38

2/20/25 AIM

Altitude and subsequently to the prescribed MDA. In addition, the pilot will be advised of the location of the

Missed Approach Point (MAP) prescribed for the procedure and the aircraft’s position each mile on final from

the runway, airport or heliport or MAP, as appropriate. If requested by the pilot, recommended altitudes will be

issued at each mile, based on the descent gradient established for the procedure, down to the last mile that is at

or above the MDA. Normally, navigational guidance will be provided until the aircraft reaches the MAP.

Controllers will terminate guidance and instruct the pilot to execute a missed approach unless at the MAP the

pilot has the runway, airport or heliport in sight or, for a helicopter point−in−space approach, the prescribed visual

reference with the surface is established. Also, if, at any time during the approach the controller considers that

safe guidance for the remainder of the approach cannot be provided, the controller will terminate guidance and

instruct the pilot to execute a missed approach. Similarly, guidance termination and missed approach will be

effected upon pilot request and, for civil aircraft only, controllers may terminate guidance when the pilot reports

the runway, airport/heliport or visual surface route (point−in−space approach) in sight or otherwise indicates that

continued guidance is not required. Radar service is automatically terminated at the completion of a radar

approach.

NOTE−

The published MDA for straight−in approaches will be issued to the pilot before beginning descent. When a surveillance

approach will terminate in a circle−to−land maneuver, the pilot must furnish the aircraft approach category to the controller .

The controller will then provide the pilot with the appropriate MDA.

3. NO−GYRO Approach. This approach is available to a pilot under radar control who experiences

circumstances wherein the directional gyro or other stabilized compass is inoperative or inaccurate. When this

occurs, the pilot should so advise A TC and request a No−Gyro vector or approach. Pilots of aircraft not equipped

with a directional gyro or other stabilized compass who desire radar handling may also request a No−Gyro vector

or approach. The pilot should make all turns at standard rate and should execute the turn immediately upon receipt

of instructions. For example, “TURN RIGHT,” “STOP TURN.” When a surveillance or precision approach is

made, the pilot will be advised after the aircraft has been turned onto final approach to make turns at half standard

rate.

5−4−12. Radar Monitoring of Instrument Approaches

a. PAR facilities operated by the FAA and the military services at some joint−use (civil and military) and

military installations monitor aircraft on instrument approaches and issue radar advisories to the pilot when

weather is below VFR minimums (1,000 and 3), at night, or when requested by a pilot. This service is provided

only when the PAR Final Approach Course coincides with the final approach of the navigational aid and only

during the operational hours of the PAR. The radar advisories serve only as a secondary aid since the pilot has

selected the navigational aid as the primary aid for the approach.

b. Prior to starting final approach, the pilot will be advised of the frequency on which the advisories will be

transmitted. If, for any reason, radar advisories cannot be furnished, the pilot will be so advised.

c. Advisory information, derived from radar observations, includes information on:

1. Passing the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision approach) or passing the outer marker or fix used

in lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approach).

NOTE−

At this point, the pilot may be requested to report sighting the approach lights or the runway.

2. Trend advisories with respect to elevation and/or azimuth radar position and movement will be provided.

NOTE−

Whenever the aircraft nears the P AR safety limit, the pilot will be advised that the aircraft is well above or below the glidepath

or well left or right of course. Glidepath information is given only to those aircraft executing a precision approach, such

as ILS. Altitude information is not transmitted to aircraft executing other than precision approaches because the descent

portions of these approaches generally do not coincide with the depicted P AR glidepath.

3. If, after repeated advisories, the aircraft proceeds outside the PAR safety limit or if a radical deviation

is observed, the pilot will be advised to execute a missed approach unless the prescribed visual reference with

the surface is established.

Arrival Procedures 5−4−39

AIM 2/20/253/15/077110.65R CHG 2AIM 8/7/25

d. Radar service is automatically terminated upon completion of the approach.

5−4−13. Simultaneous Approaches to Parallel Runways

FIG 5−4−20

Simultaneous Approaches

(Approach Courses Parallel and Offset between 2.5 and 3.0 degrees)

a. ATC procedures permit ILS/RNA V/GLS instrument approach operations to dual or triple parallel runway

configurations. ILS/RNA V/GLS approaches to parallel runways are grouped into three classes: Simultaneous

Dependent Approaches; Simultaneous Independent Approaches; and Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM

Approaches. RNA V approach procedures that are approved for simultaneous operations require GPS as the

sensor for position updating. VOR/DME, DME/DM E and IRU RNA V updating is not authorized. The

classification of a parallel runway approach procedure is dependent on adjacent parallel runway centerline

separation, A TC procedures, and airport ATC final approach radar monitoring and communications capabilities.

At some airports, one or more approach courses may be offset up to 3 degrees. ILS approaches with offset

localizer configurations result in loss of Category II/III capabilities and an increase in decision altitude/height

(50’).

Arrival Procedures5−4−40

AIM2/20/258/7/25 AIM

b. Depending on weather conditions, traffic volume, and the specific combination of runways being utilized

for arrival operations, a runway may be used for different types of simultaneous operations, including closely

spaced dependent or independent approaches. Pilots should ensure that they understand the type of operation that

is being conducted, and ask ATC for clarification if necessary.

c. Parallel approach operations demand heightened pilot situational awareness. Once cleared for an approach

procedure, each pilot must maintain the lateral and vertical path of the procedure unless otherwise instructed by

ATC. Instrument approach procedures using a curved or straight path to transition to the final segment may be

used in conjunction with simultaneous operations. Pilots may notice nearby aircraft on adjacent approaches. As

each aircraft nears the final approach fix, it may appear to the pilots involved that these aircraft are on converging

or intercepting flight tracks. The procedures provide safe separation between aircraft. Each pilot should maintain

close adherence to the approach procedure. Each pilot should be prepared to take appropriate action should

adjacent aircraft deviate in a manner that creates a collision hazard to their aircraft and notify ATC. Pilots are

informed by ATC or through the ATIS that simultaneous approaches are in use.

d. The close proximity of adjacent aircraft conducting simultaneous independent approaches, especially

simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches mandates strict pilot compliance with all ATC clearances. ATC

assigned airspeeds, altitudes, and headings must be complied with in a timely manner. Autopilot coupled

approaches require pilot knowledge of procedures necessary to comply with ATC instructions. Simultaneous

independent approaches, particularly simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches necessitate precise approach

course tracking to minimize final monitor controller intervention, and unwanted No Transgression Zone (NTZ)

penetration. In the unlikely event of a breakout, ATC will not assign altitudes lower than the minimum vectoring

altitude. Pilots should notify ATC immediately if there is a degradation of aircraft or navigation systems.

e. Strict radio discipline is mandatory during simultaneous independent and simultaneous close parallel PRM

approach operations. This includes an alert listening watch and the avoidance of lengthy, unnecessary radio

transmissions. Attention must be given to proper call sign usage to prevent the inadvertent execution of

clearances intended for another aircraft. Use of abbreviated call signs must be avoided to preclude confusion of

aircraft with similar sounding call signs. Pilots must be alert to unusually long periods of silence or any unusual

background sounds in their radio receiver. A stuck microphone may block the issuance of ATC instructions on

the tower frequency by the final monitor controller during simultaneous independent and simultaneous close

parallel PRM approaches. In the case of PRM approaches, the use of a second frequency by the monitor controller

mitigates the “stuck mike” or other blockage on the tower frequency.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Chapter 4, Section 2, Radio Communications Phraseology and Techniques, gives additional communications information.

f. Use of Traffic Collision Avoidance Systems (TCAS) provides an additional element of safety to parallel

approach operations. Pilots should follow recommended TCAS operating procedures presented in approved

flight manuals, original equipment manufacturer recommendations, professional newsletters, and FAA

publications.

Arrival Procedures 5−4−41

AIM 2/20/25

5−4−14. Simultaneous Dependent Approaches

FIG 5−4−21

Simultaneous Approaches

(Parallel Runways and Approach Courses)

a. Simultaneous dependent approaches are an ATC procedure permitting approaches to airports having

parallel runway centerlines separated by at least 2,500 feet up to 9,000 feet. Integral parts of a total system are

ILS or other system providing approach navigation, radar, communications, ATC procedures, and required

airborne equipment. RNA V equipment in the aircraft or GLS equipment on the ground and in the aircraft may

replace the required airborne and ground based ILS equipment. Although non −precision minimums may be

published, pilots must only use those procedures specifically authorized by chart note. For example, the chart

note “LNA V NA during simultaneous operations,” requires vertical guidance. When given a choice, pilots

should always fly a precision approach whenever possible.

b. A simultaneous dependent approach differs from a simultaneous independent approach in that, the

minimum distance between parallel runway centerlines may be reduced; there is no requirement for radar

monitoring or advisories; and a staggered separation of aircraft on the adjacent final course is required.

Arrival Procedures5−4−42

AIM2/20/251/22/26 AIM

c. A minimum of 1.0 NM radar separation (diagonal) is required between successive aircraft on the adjacent

final approach course when runway centerlines are at least 2,500 feet but no more than 3,600 feet apart. A

minimum of 1.5 NM radar separation (diagonal) is required between successive aircraft on the adjacent final

approach course when runway centerlines are more than 3,600 feet but no more than 8,300 feet apart. When

runway centerlines are more than 8,300 feet but no more than 9,000 feet apart a minimum of 2 NM diagonal radar

separation is provided. Aircraft on the same final approach course within 10 NM of the runway end are provided

a minimum of 3 NM radar separation, reduced to 2.5 NM in certain circumstances. In addition, a minimum of

1,000 feet vertical or a minimum of three miles radar separation is provided between aircraft during turn on to

the parallel final approach course.

d. Whenever parallel approaches are in use, pilots are informed by ATC or via the ATIS that approaches to

both runways are in use. The charted IAP also notes which runways may be used simultaneously. In addition,

the radar controller will have the interphone capability of communicating with the tower controller where

separation responsibility has not been delegated to the tower.

NOTE−

ATC will not specifically identify these operations as being dependent when advertised on the ATIS.

EXAMPLE−

Simultaneous ILS Runway 19 right and ILS Runway 19 left in use.

e. At certain airports, simultaneous dependent approaches are permitted to runways spaced less than 2,500

feet apart. In this case, ATC will provide no less than the minimum authorized diagonal separation with the leader

always arriving on the same runway. The trailing aircraft is permitted reduced diagonal separation, instead of

the single runway separation normally utilized for runways spaced less than 2,500 feet apart. For wake turbulence

mitigation reasons:

1. Reduced diagonal spacing is only permitted when certain aircraft wake category pairings exist; typically

when the leader is either in the large or small wake turbulence category, and

2. All aircraft must descend on the glideslope from the altitude at which they were cleared for the approach

during these operations.

When reduced separation is authorized, the IAP briefing strip indicates that simultaneous operations require the

use of vertical guidance and that the pilot should maintain last assigned altitude until intercepting the glideslope.

No special pilot training is required to participate in these operations.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 5−4−16, Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM Approaches and Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approaches (SOIA).

Arrival Procedures 5−4−43

AIM 2/20/25

5−4−15. Simultaneous Independent ILS/RNAV/GLS Approaches

FIG 5−4−22

Simultaneous Independent ILS/RNA V/GLS Approaches

a. System. An approach system permitting simultaneous approaches to parallel runways with centerlines

separated by at least 4,300 feet. Separation between 4,300 and 9,000 feet (9,200’ for airports above 5,000’)

utilizing NTZ final monitor controllers. Simultaneous independent approaches require NTZ radar monitoring

to ensure separation between aircraft on the adjacent parallel approach course. Aircraft position is tracked by

final monitor controllers who will issue instructions to aircraft observed deviating from the assigned final

approach course. Staggered radar separation procedures are not utilized. Integral parts of a total system are radar,

communications, A TC procedures, and ILS or other required airborne equipment. A chart note identifies that the

approach is authorized for simultaneous use.

When simultaneous operations are in use, it will be advertised on the ATIS. When advised that simultaneous

approaches are in use, pilots must advise approach control immediately of malfunctioning or inoperative

receivers, or if a simultaneous approach is not desired. Although non−precision minimums may be published,

pilots must only use those procedures specifically authorized by chart note. For example, the chart note “LNA V

NA during simultaneous operations,” requires vertical guidance. When given a choice, pilots should always fly

a precision approach whenever possible.

NOTE−

ATC does not use the word independent or parallel when advertising these operations on the ATIS.

EXAMPLE−

Simultaneous ILS Runway 24 left and ILS Runway 24 right approaches in use.

b. Radar Services. These services are provided for each simultaneous independent approach.

Arrival Procedures5−4−44

2/20/25 AIM

1. During turn on to parallel final approach, aircraft are normally provided 3 miles radar separation or a

minimum of 1,000 feet vertical separation. The assigned altitude must be maintained until intercepting the

glidepath, unless cleared otherwise by ATC. Aircraft will not be vectored to intercept the final approach course

at an angle greater than thirty degrees.

NOTE−

Some simultaneous operations permit the aircraft to track an RNAV course beginning on downwind and continuing in a turn

to intercept the final approach course. In this case, separation with the aircraft on the adjacent final approach course is

provided by the monitor controller with reference to an NTZ.

2. The final monitor controller will have the capability of overriding the tower controller on the tower

frequency.

3. Pilots will be instructed to contact the tower frequency prior to the point where NTZ monitoring begins.

4. Aircraft observed to overshoot the turn−on or to continue on a track which will penetrate the NTZ will

be instructed to return to the correct final approach course immediately. The final monitor controller may cancel

the approach clearance, and issue missed approach or other instructions to the deviating aircraft.

PHRASEOLOGY−

“(Aircraft call sign) YOU HAVE CROSSED THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE. TURN (left/right) IMMEDIATELY AND

RETURN TO THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE,”

or

“(aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) AND RETURN TO THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE.”

5. If a deviating aircraft fails to respond to such instructions or is observed penetrating the NTZ, the aircraft

on the adjacent final approach course (if threatened), will be issued a breakout instruction.

PHRASEOLOGY−

“TRAFFIC ALERT (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) IMMEDIATELY HEADING (degrees), (climb/descend) AND

MAINTAIN (altitude).”

6. Radar monitoring will automatically be terminated when visual separation is applied, the aircraft reports

the approach lights or runway in sight, or the aircraft is 1 NM or less from the runway threshold. Final monitor

controllers will not advise pilots when radar monitoring is terminated.

NOTE−

Simultaneous independent approaches conducted to runways spaced greater than 9,000 feet (or 9,200’ at airports above

5,000’) do not require an NTZ. However, from a pilot’ s perspective, the same alerts relative to deviating aircraft will be

provided by ATC as are provided when an NTZ is being monitored. Pilots may not be aware as to whether or not an NTZ

is being monitored.

Arrival Procedures 5−4−45

AIM 2/20/25

5−4−16. Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM Approaches and Simultaneous Offset Instrument

Approaches (SOIA)

FIG 5−4−23

PRM Approaches

Simultaneous Close Parallel

a. System.

1. PRM is an acronym for the high update rate Precision Runway Monitor surveillance system which is

required to monitor the No Transgression Zone (NTZ) for specific parallel runway separations used to conduct

simultaneous close parallel approaches. PRM is also published in the title as part of the approach name for IAPs

used to conduct Simultaneous Close Parallel approaches. “PRM” alerts pilots that specific airborne equipment,

training, and procedures are applicable.

Because Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM approaches are independent, the NTZ and normal operating zone

(NOZ) airspace between the final approach courses is monitored by two monitor controllers, one for each

approach course. The NTZ monitoring system (final monitor aid) consists of a high resolution ATC radar display

with automated tracking software which provides monitor controllers with aircraft identification, position,

speed, and a ten−second projected position, as well as visual and aural NTZ penetration alerts. A PRM high

update rate surveillance sensor is a component of this system only for specific runway spacing. Additional

procedures for simultaneous independent approaches are described in paragraph 5−4−15, Simultaneous

Independent ILS/RNA V/GLS Approaches.

2. Simultaneous Close Parallel PRM approaches, whether conducted utilizing a high update rate PRM

surveillance sensor or not, must meet all of the following requirements: pilot training,PRM in the approach

title,NTZ monitoring utilizing a final monitor aid, radar display, publication of an AAUP, and use of a secondary

PRM communications frequency. PRM approaches are depicted on a separate IAP titled (Procedure type) PRM

Rwy XXX (Simultaneous Close Parallel or Close Parallel).

Arrival Procedures5−4−46

2/20/25 AIM

NOTE−

ATC does not use the word “independent” when advertising these operations on the ATIS.

EXAMPLE−

Simultaneous ILS PRM Runway 33 left and ILS PRM Runway 33 right approaches in use.

(a) The pilot may request to conduct a different type of PRM approach to the same runway other than

the one that is presently being used; for example, RNA V instead of ILS. However, pilots must always obtain ATC

approval to conduct a different type of approach. Also, in the event of the loss of ground−based NA V AIDS, the

ATIS may advertise other types of PRM approaches to the affected runway or runways.

(b) The Attention All Users Page (AAUP) will address procedures for conducting PRM approaches.

b. Requirements and Procedures. Besides system requirements and pilot procedures as identified in

subparagraph a1 above, all pilots must have completed special training before accepting a clearance to conduct

a PRM approach.

1. Pilot Training Requirement. Pilots must complete special pilot training, as outlined below, before

accepting a clearance for a simultaneous close parallel PRM approach.

(a) For operations under 14 CFR parts 121, 129, and 135, pilots must comply with FAA −approved

company training as identified in their Operations Specifications. Training includes the requirement for pilots

to view the FAA training slide presentation, “Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) Pilot Procedures.” Refer to

https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/prm/ or search key words “FAA PRM” for additional information

and to view or download the slide presentation.

(b) For operations under part 91:

(1) Pilots operating transport category aircraft must be familiar with PRM operations as contained in

this section of the AIM. In addition, pilots operating transport category aircraft must view the slide presentation,

“Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) Pilot Procedures.” Refer to https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/

prm/ or search key words “FAA PRM” for additional information and to view or download the slide presentation.

(2) Pilots not operating transport category aircraft must be familiar with PRM and SOIA operations

as contained in this section of the AIM. The FAA strongly recommends that pilots not involved in transport

category aircraft operations view the FAA training slide presentation, “Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) Pilot

Procedures.” Refer to https://www.faa.gov/training_testing/training/prm/ or search key words “FAA PRM” for

additional information and to view or download the slide presentation.

NOTE−

Depending on weather conditions, traffic volume, and the specific combination of runways being utilized for arrival

operations, a runway may be used for different types of simultaneous operations, including closely spaced dependent or

independent approaches. Use PRM procedures only when the ATIS advertises their use. For other types of simultaneous

approaches, see paragraphs 5−4−14 and 5−4−15.

c. ATC Directed Breakout. An A TC directed “breakout” is defined as a vector off the final approach course

of a threatened aircraft in response to another aircraft penetrating the NTZ.

d. Dual Communications. The aircraft flying the PRM approach must have the capability of enabling the

pilot/s to listen to two communications frequencies simultaneously. To avoid blocked transmissions, each

runway will have two frequencies, a primary and a PRM monitor frequency. The tower controller will transmit

on both frequencies. The monitor controller’s transmissions, if needed, will override both frequencies. Pilots will

ONLY transmit on the tower controller’s frequency, but will listen to both frequencies. Select the PRM monitor

frequency audio only when instructed by ATC to contact the tower. The volume levels should be set about the

same on both radios so that the pilots will be able to hear transmissions on the PRM frequency if the tower is

blocked. Site−specific procedures take precedence over the general information presented in this paragraph.

Refer to the AAUP for applicable procedures at specific airports.

e. Radar Services.

1. During turn on to parallel final approach, aircraft will be provided 3 miles radar separation or a minimum

of 1,000 feet vertical separation. The assigned altitude must be maintained until intercepting the

Arrival Procedures 5−4−47

AIM 2/20/25

glideslope/glidepath, unless cleared otherwise by ATC. Aircraft will not be vectored to intercept the final

approach course at an angle greater than thirty degrees.

2. The final monitor controller will have the capability of overriding the tower controller on the tower

frequency as well as transmitting on the PRM frequency.

3. Pilots will be instructed to contact the tower frequency prior to the point where NTZ monitoring begins.

Pilots will begin monitoring the secondary PRM frequency at that time (see Dual VHF Communications

Required below).

4. To ensure separation is maintained, and in order to avoid an imminent situation during PRM approaches,

pilots must immediately comply with monitor controller instructions.

5. Aircraft observed to overshoot the turn or to continue on a track which will penetrate the NTZ will be

instructed to return to the correct final approach course immediately. The final monitor controller may cancel

the approach clearance, and issue missed approach or other instructions to the deviating aircraft.

PHRASEOLOGY−

“(Aircraft call sign) YOU HAVE CROSSED THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE. TURN (left/right) IMMEDIATELY AND

RETURN TO THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE,”

or

“(Aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) AND RETURN TO THE FINAL APPROACH COURSE.”

6. If a deviating aircraft fails to respond to such instructions or is observed penetrating the NTZ, the aircraft

on the adjacent final approach course (if threatened) will be issued a breakout instruction.

PHRASEOLOGY−

“TRAFFIC ALERT (aircraft call sign) TURN (left/right) IMMEDIATELY HEADING (degrees), (climb/descend) AND

MAINTAIN (altitude).”

7. Radar monitoring will automatically be terminated when visual separation is applied, or the aircraft

reports the approach lights or runway in sight or within 1 NM of the runway threshold. Final monitor controllers

will not advise pilots when radar monitoring is terminated.

f. Attention All Users Page (AAUP). At airports that conduct PRM operations, the AAUP informs pilots

under the “General” section of information relative to all the PRM approaches published at a specific airport,

and this section must be briefed in its entirety. Under the “Runway Specific” section, only items relative to the

runway to be used for landing need be briefed. (See FIG 5−4−24.) A single AAUP is utilized for multiple PRM

approach charts at the same airport, which are listed on the AAUP. The requirement for informing ATC if the

pilot is unable to accept a PRM clearance is also presented. The “General” section of AAUP addresses the

following:

1. Review of the procedure for executing a climbing or descending breakout;

2. Breakout phraseology beginning with the words, “Traffic Alert;”

3. Descending on the glideslope/glidepath meets all crossing restrictions;

4. Briefing the PRM approach also satisfies the non−PRM approach briefing of the same type of approach

to the same runway; and

5. Description of the dual communications procedure.

The “Runway Specific” section of the AAUP addresses those issues which only apply to certain runway ends

that utilize PRM approaches. There may be no Runway Specific procedures, a single item applicable to only one

runway end, or multiple items for a single or multiple runway end/s. Examples of SOIA runway specific

procedures are as follows:

Arrival Procedures5−4−48

2/20/25 AIM

FIG 5−4−24

PRM Attention All Users Page (AAUP)

g. Simultaneous Offset Instrument Approach (SOIA).

1. SOIA is a procedure used to conduct simultaneous approaches to runways spaced less than 3,000 feet,

but at least 750 feet apart. The SOIA procedure utilizes a straight−in PRM approach to one runway, and a PRM

offset approach with glideslope/glidepath to the adjacent runway. In SOIA operations, aircraft are paired, with

the aircraft conducting the straight−in PRM approach always positioned slightly ahead of the aircraft conducting

the offset PRM approach.

2. The straight−in PRM approach plates used in SOIA operations are identical to other straight−in PRM

approach plates, with an additional note, which provides the separation between the two runways used for

Arrival Procedures 5−4−49

AIM 2/20/25

simultaneous SOIA approaches. The offset PRM approach plate displays the required notations for closely

spaced approaches as well as depicts the visual segment of the approach.

3. Controllers monitor the SOIA PRM approaches in exactly the same manner as is done for other PRM

approaches. The procedures and system requirements for SOIA PRM approaches are identical with those used

for simultaneous close parallel PRM approaches until near the offset PRM approach missed approach point

(MAP), where visual acquisition of the straight−in aircraft by the aircraft conducting the offset PRM approach

occurs. Since SOIA PRM approaches are identical to other PRM approaches (except for the visual segment in

the offset approach), an understanding of the procedures for conducting PRM approaches is essential before

conducting a SOIA PRM operation.

4. In SOIA, the approach course separation (instead of the runway separation) meets established close

parallel approach criteria. (See FIG 5−4−25 for the generic SOIA approach geometry.) A visual segment of the

offset PRM approach is established between the offset MAP and the runway threshold. Aircraft transition in

visual conditions from the offset course, beginning at the offset MAP, to align with the runway and can be

stabilized by 500 feet above ground level (AGL) on the extended runway centerline. A cloud ceiling for the

approach is established so that the aircraft conducting the offset approach has nominally at least 30 seconds or

more to acquire the leading straight −in aircraft prior to reaching the offset MAP. If visual acquisition is not

accomplished prior to crossing the offset MAP, a missed approach must be executed.

5. Flight Management System (FMS) coding of the offset RNA V PRM and GLS PRM approaches in a

SOIA operation is different than other RNA V and GLS approach coding in that it does not match the initial missed

approach procedure published on the charted IAP. In the SOIA design of the offset approach, lateral course

guidance terminates at the fictitious threshold point (FTP), which is an extension of the final approach course

beyond the offset MAP to a point near the runway threshold. The FTP is designated in the approach coding as

the MAP so that vertical guidance is available to the pilot to the runway threshold, just as vertical guidance is

provided by the offset LDA glideslope. No matter what type of offset approach is being conducted, reliance on

lateral guidance is discontinued at the charted MAP and replaced by visual maneuvering to accomplish runway

alignment.

(a) As a result of this approach coding, when executing a missed approach at and after passing the charted

offset MAP, a heading must initially be flown (either hand−flown or using autopilot “heading mode”) before

engaging LNA V . If the pilot engages LNA V immediately, the aircraft may continue to track toward the FTP

instead of commencing a turn toward the missed approach holding fix. Notes on the charted IAP and in the AAUP

make specific reference to this procedure.

(b) Some FMSs do not code waypoints inside of the FAF as part of the approach. Therefore, the depicted

MAP on the charted IAP may not be included in the offset approach coding. Pilots utilizing those FMSs may

identify the location of the waypoint by noting its distance from the FTP as published on the charted IAP . In those

same FMSs, the straight−in SOIA approach will not display a waypoint inside the PFAF. The same procedures

may be utilized to identify an uncoded waypoint. In this case, the location is determined by noting its distance

from the runway waypoint or using an authorized distance as published on the charted IAP.

(c) Because the FTP is coded as the MAP, the FMS map display will depict the initial missed approach

course as beginning at the FTP. This depiction does not match the charted initial missed approach procedure on

the IAP. Pilots are reminded that charted IAP guidance is to be followed, not the map display. Once the aircraft

completes the initial turn when commencing a missed approach, the remainder of the procedure coding is

standard and can be utilized as with any other IAP.

Arrival Procedures5−4−50

2/20/25 AIM

FIG 5−4−25

SOIA Approach Geometry

NOTE−

SAP The stabilized approach point is a design point along the extended centerline of the intended land-

ing runway on the glide slope/glide path at 500 feet above the runway threshold elevation. It is

used to verify a sufficient distance is provided for the visual maneuver after the offset course ap-

proach DA to permit the pilots to conform to approved, stabilized approach criteria. The SAP is

not published on the IAP .

Offset The point along the LDA, or other offset course, where the course separation with the adjacent

Course DA ILS, or other straight-in course, reaches the minimum distance permitted to conduct closely

spaced approaches. Typically that minimum distance will be 3,000 feet without the use of high

update radar; with high update radar, course separation of less than 3,000 ft may be used when

validated by a safety study. The altitude of the glide slope/glide path at that point determines the

offset course approach decision altitude and is where the NTZ terminates. Maneuvering inside

the DA is done in visual conditions.

Visual Angle, as determined by the SOIA design tool, formed by the extension of the straight segment

Segment of the calculated flight track (between the offset course MAP/DA and the SAP) and the extended

Angle runway centerline. The size of the angle is dependent on the aircraft approach categories (Cat-

egory D or only selected categories/speeds) that are authorized to use the offset course approach

and the spacing between the runways.

Visibility Distance from the offset course approach DA to runway threshold in statute mile.

Arrival Procedures 5−4−51

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Procedure The aircraft on the offset course approach must see the runway-landing environment and, if ATC

has advised that traffic on the straight-in approach is a factor, the offset course approach aircraft

must visually acquire the straight-in approach aircraft and report it in sight to ATC prior to reach-

ing the DA for the offset course approach.

CC The Clear of Clouds point is the position on the offset final approach course where aircraft

first operate in visual meteorological conditions below the ceiling, when the actual weather

conditions are at, or near, the minimum ceiling for SOIA operations. Ceiling is defined by the

Aeronautical Information Manual.

6. SOIA PRM approaches utilize the same dual communications procedures as do other PRM approaches.

(a) SOIA utilizes the same AAUP format as do other PRM approaches. The minimum weather conditions

that are required are listed. Because of the more complex nature of instructions for conducting SOIA approaches,

the “Runway Specific” items are more numerous and lengthy.

(b) Examples of SOIA offset runway specific notes:

(1) Aircraft must remain on the offset course until passing the offset MAP prior to maneuvering to align

with the centerline of the offset approach runway.

(2) Pilots are authorized to continue past the offset MAP to align with runway centerline when:

[a] the straight−in approach traffic is in sight and is expected to remain in sight,

[b] ATC has been advised that “traffic is in sight.” (ATC is not required to acknowledge this

transmission),

[c] the runway environment is in sight. Otherwise, a missed approach must be executed. Between

the offset MAP and the runway threshold, pilots conducting the offset PRM approach must not pass the

straight−in aircraft and are responsible for separating themselves visually from traffic conducting the straight−in

PRM approach to the adjacent runway, which means maneuvering the aircraft as necessary to avoid that traffic

until landing, and providing wake turbulence avoidance, if applicable. Pilots maintaining visual separation

should advise ATC, as soon as practical, if visual contact with the aircraft conducting the straight −in PRM

approach is lost and execute a missed approach unless otherwise instructed by ATC.

(c) Examples of SOIA straight−in runway specific notes:

(1) To facilitate the offset aircraft in providing wake mitigation, pilots should descend on, not above,

the glideslope/glidepath.

(2) Conducting the straight−in approach, pilots should be aware that the aircraft conducting the offset

approach will be approaching from the right/left rear and will be operating in close proximity to the straight−in

aircraft.

7. Recap.

The following are differences between widely spaced simultaneous approaches (at least 4,300 feet between the

runway centerlines) and Simultaneous PRM close parallel approaches which are of importance to the pilot:

(a) Runway Spacing. Prior to PRM simultaneous close parallel approaches, most ATC −directed

breakouts were the result of two aircraft in−trail on the same final approach course getting too close together.

Two aircraft going in the same direction did not mandate quick reaction times. With PRM closely spaced

approaches, two aircraft could be alongside each other, navigating on courses that are separated by less than 4,300

feet and as close as 3,000 feet. In the unlikely event that an aircraft “blunders” off its course and makes a worst

case turn of 30 degrees toward the adjacent final approach course, closing speeds of 135 feet per second could

occur that constitute the need for quick reaction. A blunder has to be recognized by the monitor controller, and

breakout instructions issued to the endangered aircraft. The pilot will not have any warning that a breakout is

imminent because the blundering aircraft will be on another frequency. It is important that, when a pilot receives

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breakout instructions, the assumption is made that a blundering aircraft is about to (or has penetrated the NTZ)

and is heading toward his/her approach course. The pilot must initiate a breakout as soon as safety allows. While

conducting PRM approaches, pilots must maintain an increased sense of awareness in order to immediately react

to an ATC (breakout) instruction and maneuver (as instructed by ATC) away from a blundering aircraft.

(b) Communications. Dual VHF communications procedures should be carefully followed. One of the

assumptions made that permits the safe conduct of PR M approaches is that there will be no blocked

communications.

(c) Hand−flown Breakouts. The use of the autopilot is encouraged while flying a PRM approach, but

the autopilot must be disengaged in the rare event that a breakout is issued. Simulation studies of breakouts have

shown that a hand−flown breakout can be initiated consistently faster than a breakout performed using the

autopilot.

(d) TCAS. The ATC breakout instruction is the primary means of conflict resolution. TCAS, if installed,

provides another form of conflict resolution in the unlikely event other separation standards would fail. TCAS

is not required to conduct a closely spaced approach.

The TCAS provides only vertical resolution of aircraft conflicts, while the ATC breakout instruction provides

both vertical and horizontal guidance for conflict resolutions. Pilots should always immediately follow the TCAS

Resolution Advisory (RA), whenever it is received. Should a TCAS RA be received before, during, or after an

ATC breakout instruction is issued, the pilot should follow the RA, even if it conflicts with the climb/descent

portion of the breakout maneuver. If following an RA requires deviating from an ATC clearance, the pilot must

advise A TC as soon as practical. While following an RA, it is extremely important that the pilot also comply with

the turn portion of the ATC breakout instruction unless the pilot determines safety to be factor. Adhering to these

procedures assures the pilot that acceptable “breakout” separation margins will always be provided, even in the

face of a normal procedural or system failure.

5−4−17. Simultaneous Converging Instrument Approaches

a. ATC may conduct instrument approaches simultaneously to converging runways; i.e., runways having an

included angle from 15 to 100 degrees, at airports where a program has been specifically approved to do so.

b. The basic concept requires that dedicated, separate standard instrument approach procedures be developed

for each converging runway included. These approaches can be identified by the letter “V” in the title; for

example, “ILS V Rwy 17 (CONVERGING)”. Missed Approach Points must be at least 3 miles apart and missed

approach procedures ensure that missed approach protected airspace does not overlap.

c. Other requirements are: radar availability, nonintersecting final approach courses, precision approach

capability for each runway and, if runways intersect, controllers must be able to apply visual separation as well

as intersecting runway separation criteria. Intersecting runways also require minimums of at least 700 foot

ceilings and 2 miles visibility. Straight in approaches and landings must be made.

d. Whenever simultaneous converging approaches are in use, aircraft will be informed by the controller as

soon as feasible after initial contact or via ATIS. Additionally, the radar controller will have direct

communications capability with the tower controller where separation responsibility has not been delegated to

the tower.

5−4−18. RNP AR (Authorization Required) Instrument Procedures

a. RNP AR procedures require authorization analogous to the special authorization required for Category II

or III ILS procedures. All operators require specific authorization from the FAA to fly any RNP AR approach

or departure procedure. The FAA issues RNP AR authorization via operations specification (OpSpec),

management specification (MSpec), or letter of authorization (LOA). There are no exceptions. Operators can

find comprehensive information on RNP AR aircraft eligibility, operating procedures, and training requirements

in AC 90−101, Approval Guidance for RNP Procedures with AR.

b. Unique characteristics of RNP AR Operations Approach title. The FAA titles all RNP AR instrument

approach procedures (IAP) as “RNA V (RNP) RWY XX.” Internationally, operators may find RNP AR IAPs

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titled “RNP RWY XX (AR).” All RNP AR procedures will clearly state “Authorization Required” on the

procedure chart.

c. RNP value. RNP AR procedures are characterized by use of a lateral Obstacle Evaluation Area (OEA) equal

to two times the RNP value (2 x RNP) in nautical miles. No secondary lateral OEA or additional buffers are used.

RNP AR procedures require a minimum lateral accuracy value of RNP 0.30. Each published line of minima in

an RNP AR procedure has an associated RNP value that defines the procedure’s lateral performance requirement

in the Final Approach Segment. Each approved RNP AR operator’s FAA−issued authorization will identify a

minimum authorized RNP approach value. This value may vary depending on aircraft configuration or

operational procedures (e.g., use of flight director or autopilot).

d. Radius−to−fix (RF) legs. Many RNP AR IFPs contain RF legs. Aircraft eligibility for RF legs is required

in any authorization for RNP AR operations.

e. Missed Approach RNP value less than 1.00 NM. Some RNP AR IFPs require an RNP lateral accuracy value

of less than 1.00 NM in the missed approach segment. The operator’s FAA−issued RNP AR authorization will

specify whether the operator may fly a missed approach procedure requiring a lateral accuracy value less than

1.00 NM. AC 90−101 identifies specific operating procedures and training requirements applicable to this aspect

of RNP AR procedures.

f. Non−standard speeds or climb gradients. RNP AR approaches may require non−standard approach speeds

and/or missed approach climb gradients. RNP AR approach charts will reflect any non−standard requirements

and pilots must confirm they can meet those requirements before commencing the approach.

g. RNP AR Departure Procedures (RNP AR DP). RNP AR approach authorization is a mandatory prerequisite

for an operator to be eligible to perform RNP AR DPs. RNP AR DPs can utilize a minimum RNP value of RNP

0.30, may include higher than standard climb gradients, and may include RF turns. Close in RF turns associated

with RNP AR DPs may begin as soon as the departure end of the runway (DER). For specific eligibility guidance,

operators should refer to AC 90−101.

FIG 5−4−26

Example of an RNP AR DP

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AIM2/20/251/22/26 AIM

5−4−19. Side− step Maneuver

a. ATC may authorize a standard instrument approach procedure which serves either one of parallel runways

that are separated by 1,200 feet or less followed by a straight−in landing on the adjacent runway.

b. Aircraft that will execute a side−step maneuver will be cleared for a specified approach procedure and

landing on the adjacent parallel runway. Example, “cleared ILS runway 7 left approach, side−step to runway 7

right.” Pilots are expected to commence the side−step maneuver as soon as possible after the runway or runway

environment is in sight. Compliance with minimum altitudes associated with stepdown fixes is expected even

after the side−step maneuver is initiated.

NOTE−

Side−step minima are flown to a Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) regardless of the approach authorized.

c. Landing minimums to the adjacent runway will be based on nonprecision criteria and therefore higher than

the precision minimums to the primary runway, but will normally be lower than the published circling

minimums.

5−4−20. Approach and Landing Minimums

a. Landing Minimums. The rules applicable to landing minimums are contained in 14 CFR section 91.175.

TBL 5−4−1 may be used to convert RVR to ground or flight visibility. For converting RVR values that fall

between listed values, use the next higher RVR value; do not interpolate. For example, when converting

1800 RVR, use 2400 RVR with the resultant visibility of 1/2 mile.

b. Obstacle Clearance. Final approach obstacle clearance is provided from the start of the final segment to

the runway or missed approach point, whichever occurs last. Side −step obstacle protection is provided by

increasing the width of the final approach obstacle clearance area.

TBL 5−4−1

RVR Value Conversions

RVR Visibility

(statute miles)

1600 1/4

2400 1/2

3200 5/8

4000 3/4

4500 7/8

5000 1

6000 1 1/4

1. Circling approach protected areas are defined by the tangential connection of arcs drawn from each

runway end (see FIG 5−4−27). Circling approach protected areas developed prior to late 2012 used fixed radius

distances, dependent on aircraft approach category, as shown in the table on page B2 of the U.S. TPP. The

approaches using standard circling approach areas can be identified by the absence of the “negative C” symbol

on the circling line of minima. Circling approach protected areas developed after late 2012 use the radius distance

shown in the table on page B2 of the U.S. TPP, dependent on aircraft approach category, and the altitude of the

circling MDA, which accounts for true airspeed increase with altitude. The approaches using expanded circling

approach areas can be identified by the presence of the “negative C” symbol on the circling line of minima (see

FIG 5−4−28). Because of obstacles near the airport, a portion of the circling area may be restricted by a

procedural note; for example, “Circling NA E of RWY 17−35.” Obstacle clearance is provided at the published

minimums (MDA) for the pilot who makes a straight−in approach, side−steps, or circles. Once below the MDA

the pilot must see and avoid obstacles. Executing the missed approach after starting to maneuver usually places

the aircraft beyond the MAP. The aircraft is clear of obstacles when at or above the MDA while inside the circling

area, but simply joining the missed approach ground track from the circling maneuver may not provide vertical

obstacle clearance once the aircraft exits the circling area. Additional climb inside the circling area may be

required before joining the missed approach track. See paragraph 5 −4−21, Missed Approach, for additional

considerations when starting a missed approach at other than the MAP.

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FIG 5−4−27

Final Approach Obstacle Clearance

NOTE−

Circling approach area radii vary according to approach category and MSL circling altitude due to TAS

changes—see FIG 5−4−28.

FIG 5−4−28

Standard and Expanded Circling Approach Radii in the U.S. TPP

2. Precision Obstacle Free Zone (POFZ). A volume of airspace above an area beginning at the runway

threshold, at the threshold elevation, and centered on the extended runway centerline. The POFZ is 200 feet

(60m) long and 800 feet (240m) wide. The POFZ must be clear when an aircraft on a vertically guided final

approach is within 2 nautical miles of the runway threshold and the official weather observation is a ceiling below

250 feet or visibility less than 3/4 statute mile (SM) (or runway visual range below 4,000 feet). If the POFZ is not

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clear, the MINIMUM authorized height above touchdown (HAT) and visibility is 250 feet and 3/4 SM. The POFZ

is considered clear even if the wing of the aircraft holding on a taxiway waiting for runway clearance penetrates

the POFZ; however, neither the fuselage nor the tail may infringe on the POFZ. The POFZ is applicable at all

runway ends including displaced thresholds.

FIG 5−4−29

Precision Obstacle Free Zone (POFZ)

c. Straight−in Minimums are shown on the IAP when the final approach course is within 30 degrees of the

runway alignment and a normal descent can be made from the IFR altitude shown on the IAP to the runway

surface. When either the normal rate of descent or the runway alignment factor of 30 degrees is exceeded, a

straight−in minimum is not published and a circling minimum applies. The fact that a straight−in minimum is

not published does not preclude pilots from landing straight−in if they have the active runway in sight and have

sufficient time to make a normal approach for landing. Under such conditions and when ATC has cleared them

for landing on that runway, pilots are not expected to circle even though only circling minimums are published.

If they desire to circle, they should advise ATC.

d. Side−Step Maneuver Minimums. Landing minimums for a side−step maneuver to the adjacent runway

will normally be higher than the minimums to the primary runway.

e. Published Approach Minimums. Approach minimums are published for different aircraft categories and

consist of a minimum altitude (DA, DH, MDA) and required visibility. These minimums are determined by

applying the appropriate TERPS criteria. When a fix is incorporated in a nonprecision final segment, two sets

of minimums may be published: one for the pilot that is able to identify the fix, and a second for the pilot that

cannot. Two sets of minimums may also be published when a second altimeter source is used in the procedure.

When a nonprecision procedure incorporates both a stepdown fix in the final segment and a second altimeter

source, two sets of minimums are published to account for the stepdown fix and a note addresses minimums for

the second altimeter source.

f. Circling Minimums. In some busy terminal areas, ATC may not allow circling and circling minimums will

not be published. Published circling minimums provide obstacle clearance when pilots remain within the

appropriate area of protection. Pilots should remain at or above the circling altitude until the aircraft is

continuously in a position from which a descent to a landing on the intended runway can be made at a normal

rate of descent using normal maneuvers. Circling may require maneuvers at low altitude, at low airspeed, and

in marginal weather conditions. Pilots must use sound judgment, have an in −depth knowledge of their

capabilities, and fully understand the aircraft performance to determine the exact circling maneuver since

weather, unique airport design, and the aircraft position, altitude, and airspeed must all be considered. The

following basic guidance applies to the circling maneuver:

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1. A portion of the circling area may be restricted. The restriction will be described by a chart note with

reference to a direction relative to a runway or runways, and no circling maneuvers may be made in that restricted

area. The restrictions may be applicable only to certain aircraft approach categories, and circling restrictions may

differ between day and night. Pilots must carefully review and comply with circling restrictions during all

circling operations.

2. At towered airports, follow speci fic instruction from the controller during the circling maneuver;

however, an ATC clearance does not negate published circling area restrictions.

3. At non−towered airports, pilots must utilize the turn direction specified by 14 CFR § 91.126(b) unless

a published circling area restriction requires the pilot to make turns in the opposite direction. It may be desirable

to fly over the airport to observe wind and turn indicators and other traffic that may be on the runway or flying

in the vicinity of the airport.

4. Remain vigilant for other traffic and remain within the circling approach maneuvering airspace radius

distance as shown in the table on page B2 of the U.S. TPP. Maneuver to a base or downwind leg, as appropriate,

considering existing weather conditions, VFR traffic flow, altitude to be lost while using normal descent

rates/maneuvers, and any circling restrictions.

REFERENCE−

AC 90−66, Non−Towered Airport Flight Operations.

5. The missed approach point (MAP) varies depending upon the approach flown. For vertically guided

approaches, the MAP is at the decision altitude/decision height. Non−vertically guided and circling procedures

share the same MAP, and the pilot determines this MAP by timing from the final approach fix, by a fix, a

NA V AID, or a waypoint. Circling from a GLS, an ILS without a localizer line of minima, or an RNA V (GPS)

approach without an LNA V line of minima is prohibited.

g. Instrument Approach at a Military Field. When instrument approaches are conducted by civil aircraft

at military airports, they must be conducted in accordance with the procedures and minimums approved by the

military agency having jurisdiction over the airport.

5−4−21. Missed Approach

a. When a landing cannot be accomplished, advise ATC and, upon reaching the missed approach point defined

on the approach procedure chart, the pilot must comply with the missed approach instructions for the procedure

being used or with an alternate missed approach procedure specified by ATC.

b. Obstacle protection for missed approach is predicated on the missed approach being initiated at the decision

altitude/decision height (DA/DH) or at the missed approach point and not lower than minimum descent altitude

(MDA). A climb gradient of at least 200 feet per nautical mile is required, (except for Copter approaches, where

a climb of at least 400 feet per nautical mile is required), unless a higher climb gradient is published in the notes

section of the approach procedure chart. When higher than standard climb gradients are specified, the end point

of the non−standard climb will be specified at either an altitude or a fix. Pilots must preplan to ensure that the

aircraft can meet the climb gradient (expressed in feet per nautical mile) required by the procedure in the event

of a missed approach, and be aware that flying at a higher than anticipated ground speed increases the climb rate

requirement (feet per minute). Tables for the conversion of climb gradients (feet per nautical mile) to climb rate

(feet per minute), based on ground speed, are included on page D1 of the U.S. Terminal Procedures booklets.

Reasonable buffers are provided for normal maneuvers. However, no consideration is given to an abnormally

early turn. Therefore, when an early missed approach is executed, pilots should, unless otherwise cleared by

ATC, fly the IAP as specified on the approach plate to the missed approach point at or above the MDA or DH

before executing a turning maneuver.

c. If visual reference is lost while circling −to−land from an instrument approach, the missed approach

specified for that particular procedure must be followed (unless an alternate missed approach procedure is

specified by ATC). To become established on the prescribed missed approach course, the pilot should make an

initial climbing turn toward the landing runway and continue the turn until established on the missed approach

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AIM2/20/251/22/26 AIM

course. Inasmuch as the circling maneuver may be accomplished in more than one direction, different patterns

will be required to become established on the prescribed missed approach course, depending on the aircraft

position at the time visual reference is lost. Adherence to the procedure will help assure that an aircraft will

remain laterally within the circling and missed approach obstruction clearance areas. Refer to paragraph h

concerning vertical obstruction clearance when starting a missed approach at other than the MAP. (See

FIG 5−4−30.)

d. At locations where ATC radar service is provided, the pilot should conform to radar vectors when provided

by ATC in lieu of the published missed approach procedure. (See FIG 5−4−31.)

e. Some locations may have a preplanned alternate missed approach procedure for use in the event the primary

NA V AID used for the missed approach procedure is unavailable. To avoid confusion, the alternate missed

approach instructions are not published on the chart. However, the alternate missed approach holding pattern will

be depicted on the instrument approach chart for pilot situational awareness and to assist ATC by not having to

issue detailed holding instructions. The alternate missed approach may be based on NA V AIDs not used in the

approach procedure or the primary missed approach. When the alternate missed approach procedure is

implemented by NOTAM, it becomes a mandatory part of the procedure. The NOTAM will specify both the

textual instructions and any additional equipment requirements necessary to complete the procedure. Air traffic

may also issue instructions for the alternate missed approach when necessary, such as when the primary missed

approach NA V AID fails during the approach. Pilots may reject an ATC clearance for an alternate missed

approach that requires equipment not necessary for the published approach procedure when the alternate missed

approach is issued after beginning the approach. However, when the alternate missed approach is issued prior

to beginning the approach the pilot must either accept the entire procedure (including the alternate missed

approach), request a different approach procedure, or coordinate with ATC for alternative action to be taken, i.e.,

proceed to an alternate airport, etc.

f. When approach has been missed, request clearance for specific action; i.e., to alternative airport, another

approach, etc.

g. Pilots must ensure that they have climbed to a safe altitude prior to proceeding off the published missed

approach, especially in nonradar environments. Abandoning the missed approach prior to reaching the published

altitude may not provide adequate terrain clearance. Additional climb may be required after reaching the holding

pattern before proceeding back to the IAF or to an alternate.

h. A clearance for an instrument approach procedure includes a clearance to fly the published missed

approach procedure, unless otherwise instructed by ATC. The published missed approach procedure provides

obstacle clearance only when the missed approach is conducted on the missed approach segment from or above

the missed approach point, and assumes a climb rate of 200 feet/NM or higher, as published. If the aircraft

initiates a missed approach at a point other than the missed approach point (see paragraph 5−4−5b), from below

MDA or DA (H), or on a circling approach, obstacle clearance is not necessarily provided by following the

published missed approach procedure, nor is separation assured from other air traffic in the vicinity.

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FIG 5−4−30

Circling and Missed Approach Obstruction Clearance Areas

CLIMBING TURN

CLIMBING TURN

DECISION TO MISS

HERE

DECISION

TO MISS HERE

VOR

VOR

CIRCLING

MANEUVER

(WHEN

CLEARED IN

RIGHT HAND

TRAFFIC

PATTERN)

FIG 5−4−31

Missed Approach

CHANUTE

109.2 CNU

090°

1450 1265

Portion of a Published Procedure

Remain within

10 NM

VOR

MISSED APPROACH

Climbing right turn to

2600 direct to VOR2600

236°

056°

5.7 NM

056°

011°191°

In the event a balked (rejected) landing occurs at a position other than the published missed approach point, the

pilot should contact ATC as soon as possible to obtain an amended clearance. If unable to contact ATC for any

reason, the pilot should attempt to re−intercept a published segment of the missed approach and comply with

route and altitude instructions. If unable to contact ATC, and in the pilot’s judgment it is no longer appropriate

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AIM2/20/251/22/26 AIM

to fly the published missed approach procedure, then consider either maintaining visual conditions if practicable

and reattempt a landing, or a circle−climb over the airport. Should a missed approach become necessary when

operating to an airport that is not served by an operating control tower, continuous contact with an air traffic

facility may not be possible. In this case, the pilot should execute the appropriate go−around/missed approach

procedure without delay and contact ATC when able to do so.

Prior to initiating an instrument approach procedure, the pilot should assess the actions to be taken in the event

of a balked (rejected) landing beyond the missed approach point or below the MDA or DA (H) considering the

anticipated weather conditions and available aircraft performance. 14 CFR 91.175(e) authorizes the pilot to fly

an appropriate missed approach procedure that ensures obstruction clearance, but it does not necessarily consider

separation from other air traffic. The pilot must consider other factors such as the aircraft’s geographical location

with respect to the prescribed missed approach point, direction of flight, and/or minimum turning altitudes in

the prescribed missed approach procedure. The pilot must also consider aircraft performance, visual climb

restrictions, charted obstacles, published obstacle departure procedure, takeoff visual climb requirements as

expressed by nonstandard takeoff minima, other traffic expected to be in the vicinity, or other factors not

specifically expressed by the approach procedures.

5−4−22. Use of Enhanced Flight Vision Systems (EFVS) on Instrument Approaches

a. Introduction. During an instrument approach, an EFVS can enable a pilot to see the approach lights, visual

references associated with the runway environment, and other objects or features that might not be visible using

natural vision alone. An EFVS uses a head−up display (HUD), or an equivalent display that is a head −up

presentation, to combine flight information, flight symbology, navigation guidance, and a real−time image of

the external scene to the pilot. Combining the flight information, navigation guidance, and sensor imagery on

a HUD (or equivalent display) allows the pilot to continue looking forward along the flightpath throughout the

entire approach, landing, and rollout.

An EFVS operation is an operation in which visibility conditions require an EFVS to be used in lieu of natural

vision to perform an approach or landing, determine enhanced flight visibility, identify required visual

references, or conduct a rollout. There are two types of EFVS operations:

1. EFVS operations to touchdown and rollout.

2. EFVS operations to 100 feet above the touchdown zone elevation (TDZE).

b. EFVS Operations to Touchdown and Rollout. An EFVS operation to touchdown and rollout is an

operation in which the pilot uses the enhanced vision imagery provided by an EFVS in lieu of natural vision to

descend below DA or DH to touchdown and rollout. (See FIG 5−4−32.) These operations may be conducted only

on Standard Instrument Approach Procedures (SIAP) or special IAPs that have a DA or DH (for example,

precision or APV approach). An EFVS operation to touchdown and rollout may not be conducted on an approach

that has circling minimums. The regulations for EFVS operations to touchdown and rollout can be found in

14 CFR § 91.176(a).

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FIG 5−4−32

EFVS Operation to Touchdown and Rollout

c. EFVS Operations to 100 Feet Above the TDZE. An EFVS operation to 100 feet above the TDZE is an

operation in which the pilot uses the enhanced vision imagery provided by an EFVS in lieu of natural vision to

descend below DA/DH or MDA down to 100 feet above the TDZE. (See FIG 5−4−33.) To continue the approach

below 100 feet above the TDZE, a pilot must have sufficient flight visibility to identify the required visual

references using natural vision and must continue to use the EFVS to ensure the enhanced flight visibility meets

the visibility requirements of the IAP being flown. These operations may be conducted on SIAPs or special IAPs

that have a DA/DH or MDA. An EFVS operation to 100 feet above the TDZE may not be conducted on an

approach that has circling minimums. The regulations for EFVS operations to 100 feet above the TDZE can be

found in 14 CFR § 91.176(b).

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2/20/25 AIM

FIG 5−4−33

EFVS Operation to 100 ft Above the TDZE

d. EFVS Equipment Requirements. An EFVS that is installed on a U.S.−registered aircraft and is used to

conduct EFVS operations must conform to an FAA−type design approval (i.e., a type certificate (TC), amended

TC, or supplemental type certificate (STC)). A foreign−registered aircraft used to conduct EFVS operations that

does not have an FAA−type design approval must be equipped with an EFVS that has been approved by either

the State of the Operator or the State of Registry to meet the requirements of ICAO Annex 6. Equipment

requirements for an EFVS operation to touchdown and rollout can be found in 14 CFR § 91.176(a)(1), and the

equipment requirements for an EFVS operation to 100 feet above the TDZE can be found in

14 CFR § 91.176(b)(1). An operator can determine the eligibility of their aircraft to conduct EFVS operations

by referring to the Airplane Flight Manual, Airplane Flight Manual Supplement, Rotorcraft Flight Manual, or

Rotorcraft Flight Manual Supplement as applicable.

e. Operating Requirements. Any operator who conducts EFVS operations to touchdown and rollout

(14 CFR § 91.176(a)) must have an OpSpec, MSpec, or LOA that specifically authorizes those operations. Parts

91K, 121, 125, 129, and 135 operators who conduct EFVS operations to 100 feet above the TDZE

(14 CFR § 91.176(b))must have an OpSpec, MSpec, or LOA that specifically authorizes the operation. Part 91

operators (other than 91K operators) are not required to have an LOA to conduct EFVS operations to 100 feet

above the TDZE in the United States. However, an optional LOA is available to facilitate operational approval

from foreign Civil Aviation Authorities (CAA). To conduct an EFVS operation to touchdown and rollout during

an authorized Category II or III operation, the operator must have:

1. An OpSpec, MSpec, or LOA authorizing EFVS operations to touchdown and rollout

(14 CFR § 91.176(a)); and

2. An OpSpec, MSpec, or LOA authorizing Category II or Category III operations.

f. EFVS Operations in Rotorcraft. Currently, EFVS operations in rotorcraft can only be conducted on IAPs

that are flown to a runway. Instrument approach criteria, procedures, and appropriate visual references have not

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yet been developed for straight −in landing operations below DA/DH or MDA under IFR to heliports or

platforms. An EFVS cannot be used in lieu of natural vision to descend below published minimums on copter

approaches to a point in space (PinS) followed by a “proceed visual flight rules (VFR)” visual segment, or on

approaches designed to a specific landing site using a “proceed visually” visual segment.

g. EFVS Pilot Requirements. A pilot who conducts EFVS operations must receive ground and flight training

specific to the EFVS operation to be conducted. The training must be obtained from an authorized training

provider under a training program approved by the FAA. Additionally, recent flight experience and proficiency

or competency check requirements apply to EFVS operations. These requirements are addressed in 14 CFR

§§ 61.66, 91.1065, 121.441, Appendix F to part 121, 125.287, and 135.293.

h. Enhanced Flight Visibility and Visual Reference Requirements. To descend below DA/DH or MDA

during EFVS operations under 14 CFR § 91.176(a) or (b), a pilot must make a determination that the enhanced

flight visibility observed by using an EFVS is not less than what is prescribed by the IAP being flown. In addition,

the visual references required in 14 CFR § 91.176(a) or (b) must be distinctly visible and identifiable to the pilot

using the EFVS. The determination of enhanced flight visibility is a separate action from that of identifying

required visual references, and is different from ground−reported visibility. Even though the reported visibility

or the visibility observed using natural vision may be less, as long as the EFVS provides the required enhanced

flight visibility and a pilot meets all of the other requirements, the pilot can continue descending below DA/DH

or MDA using the EFVS. Suitable enhanced flight visibility is necessary to ensure the aircraft is in a position

to continue the approach and land. It is important to understand that using an EFVS does not result in obtaining

lower minima with respect to the visibility or the DA/DH or MDA specified in the IAP. An EFVS simply provides

another means of operating in the visual segment of an IAP. The DA/DH or MDA and the visibility value

specified in the IAP to be flown do not change.

i. Flight Planning and Beginning or Continuing an Approach Under IFR. A part 121, 125, or 135

operator’s OpSpec or LOA for EFVS operations may authorize an EFVS operational credit dispatching or

releasing a flight and for beginning or continuing an instrument approach procedure. When a pilot reaches

DA/DH or MDA, the pilot conducts the EFVS operation in accordance with 14 CFR § 91.176(a) or (b) and their

authorization to conduct EFVS operations.

j. Missed Approach Considerations. In order to conduct an EFVS operation, the EFVS must be operable.

In the event of a failure of any required component of an EFVS at any point in the approach to touchdown, a

missed approach is required. However, this provision does not preclude a pilot’s authority to continue an

approach if continuation of an approach is considered by the pilot to be a safer course of action.

k. Light Emitting Diode (LED) Airport Lighting Impact on EFVS Operations. Incandescent lamps are

being replaced with LEDs at some airports in threshold lights, taxiway edge lights, taxiway centerline lights, low

intensity runway edge lights, wind cone lights, beacons, and some obstruction lighting. Additionally, there are

plans to replace incandescent lamps with LEDs in approach lighting systems. Pilots should be aware that LED

lights cannot be sensed by infrared−based EFVSs. Airports with LED approach lights will be identified in the

Airport Remarks paragraph of the Charting Supplement with the remarks: “Pilots conducting EFVS ops; be

aware LED ALS in use.” More information may be found at the FAA Flight Standards EFVS webpage at

https://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afx/afs/afs400/afs410/efvs.

l. Other Vision Systems. Unlike an EFVS that meets the equipment requirements of 14 CFR § 91.176, a

Synthetic Vision System (SVS) or Synthetic Vision Guidance System (SVGS) does not provide a real −time

sensor image of the outside scene and also does not meet the equipment requirements for EFVS operations. A

pilot cannot use a synthetic vision image on a head−up or a head−down display in lieu of natural vision to descend

below DA/DH or MDA. An EFVS can, however, be integrated with an SVS, also known as a Combined Vision

System (CVS). A CVS can be used to conduct EFVS operations if all of the requirements for an EFVS are

satisfied and the SVS image does not interfere with the pilot’s ability to see the external scene, to identify the

required visual references, or to see the sensor image.

m. Additional Information. Operational criteria for EFVS can be found in Advisory Circular (AC) 90−106,

Enhanced Flight Vision System Operations, and airworthiness criteria for EFVS can be found in AC 20−167,

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Airworthiness Approval of Enhanced Vision System, Synthetic Vision System, Combined Vision System, and

Enhanced Flight Vision System Equipment.

5−4−23. Visual Approach

a. A visual approach is conducted on an IFR flight plan and authorizes a pilot to proceed visually and clear

of clouds to the airport. The pilot must have either the airport or the preceding identified aircraft in sight. This

approach must be authorized and controlled by the appropriate air traffic control facility. Reported weather at

the airport must have a ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and visibility 3 miles or greater. ATC may authorize this

type of approach when it will be operationally beneficial. Visual approaches are an IFR procedure conducted

under IFR in visual meteorological conditions. Cloud clearance requirements of 14 CFR section 91.155 are not

applicable, unless required by operation specifications. When conducting visual approaches, pilots are

encouraged to use other available navigational aids to assist in positive lateral and vertical alignment with the

runway.

b. Operating to an Airport Without Weather Reporting Service. ATC will advise the pilot when weather

is not available at the destination airport. ATC may initiate a visual approach provided there is a reasonable

assurance that weather at the airport is a ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and visibility 3 miles or greater (e.g., area

weather reports, PIREPs, etc.).

c. Operating to an Airport With an Operating Control Tower. Aircraft may be authorized to conduct a

visual approach to one runway while other aircraft are conducting IFR or VFR approaches to another parallel,

intersecting, or converging runway. A TC may authorize a visual approach after advising all aircraft involved that

other aircraft are conducting operations to the other runway. This may be accomplished through use of the ATIS.

1. When operating to parallel runways separated by less than 2,500 feet, ATC will ensure approved

separation is provided unless the succeeding aircraft reports sighting the preceding aircraft to the adjacent

parallel and visual separation is applied.

2. When operating to parallel runways separated by at least 2,500 feet but less than 4,300 feet, ATC will

ensure approved separation is provided until the aircraft are issued an approach clearance and one pilot has

acknowledged receipt of a visual approach clearance, and the other pilot has acknowledged receipt of a visual

or instrument approach clearance, and aircraft are established on a heading or established on a direct course to

a fix or cleared on an RNA V/instrument approach procedure which will intercept the extended centerline of the

runway at an angle not greater than 30 degrees.

3. When operating to parallel runways separated by 4,300 feet or more, ATC will ensure approved

separation is provided until one of the aircraft has been issued and the pilot has acknowledged receipt of the visual

approach clearance, and each aircraft is assigned a heading, or established on a direct course to a fix, or cleared

on an RNA V/instrument approach procedure which will allow the aircraft to intercept the extended centerline

of the runway at an angle not greater than 30 degrees.

NOTE−

The intent of the 30 degree intercept angle is to reduce the potential for overshoots of the final and to preclude side−by−side

operations with one or both aircraft in a belly−up configuration during the turn−on.

d. Clearance for Visual Approach. At locations with an operating control tower, ATC will issue approach

clearances that will include an assigned runway. At locations without an operating control tower or where a

part−time tower is closed, ATC will issue a visual approach clearance to the airport only.

e. Separation Responsibilities. If the pilot has the airport in sight but cannot see the aircraft to be followed,

ATC may clear the aircraft for a visual approach; however, ATC retains both separation and wake vortex

separation responsibility. When visually following a preceding aircraft, acceptance of the visual approach

clearance constitutes acceptance of pilot responsibility for maintaining a safe approach interval and adequate

wake turbulence separation.

f. A visual approach is not an IAP and therefore has no missed approach segment. If a go−around is necessary

for any reason, aircraft operating at controlled airports will be issued an appropriate clearance or instruction by

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the tower to enter the traffic pattern for landing or proceed as otherwise instructed. In either case, the pilot is

responsible to maintain terrain and obstruction avoidance until reaching an ATC assigned altitude if issued, and

ATC will provide approved separation or visual separation from other IFR aircraft. At uncontrolled airports,

aircraft are expected to remain clear of clouds and complete a landing as soon as possible. If a landing cannot

be accomplished, the aircraft is expected to remain clear of clouds and contact ATC as soon as possible for further

clearance. Separation from other IFR aircraft will be maintained under these circumstances.

g. Visual approaches reduce pilot/controller workload and expedite traffic by shortening flight paths to the

airport. It is the pilot’s responsibility to advise ATC as soon as possible if a visual approach is not desired.

h. Authorization to conduct a visual approach is an IFR authorization and does not alter IFR flight plan

cancellation responsibility.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 5−1−15, Canceling IFR Flight Plan.

i. Radar service is automatically terminated, without advising the pilot, when the aircraft is instructed to

change to advisory frequency.

5−4−24. Charted Visual Flight Procedure (CVFP)

a. CVFPs are charted visual approaches established for environmental/noise considerations, and/or when

necessary for the safety and efficiency of air traffic operations. The approach charts depict prominent landmarks,

courses, and recommended altitudes to specific runways. CVFPs are designed to be used primarily for turbojet

aircraft.

b. These procedures will be used only at airports with an operating control tower.

c. Most approach charts will depict some NA V AID information which is for supplemental navigational

guidance only.

d. Unless indicating a Class B airspace floor, all depicted altitudes are for noise abatement purposes and are

recommended only. Pilots are not prohibited from flying other than recommended altitudes if operational

requirements dictate.

e. When landmarks used for navigation are not visible at night, the approach will be annotated “PROCEDURE

NOT AUTHORIZED AT NIGHT.”

f. CVFPs usually begin within 20 flying miles from the airport.

g. Published weather minimums for CVFPs are based on minimum vectoring altitudes rather than the

recommended altitudes depicted on charts.

h. CVFPs are not instrument approaches and do not have missed approach segments.

i. ATC will not issue clearances for CVFPs when the weather is less than the published minimum.

j. ATC will clear aircraft for a CVFP after the pilot reports siting a charted landmark or a preceding aircraft.

If instructed to follow a preceding aircraft, pilots are responsible for maintaining a safe approach interval and

wake turbulence separation.

k. Pilots should advise ATC if at any point they are unable to continue an approach or lose sight of a preceding

aircraft. Missed approaches will be handled as a go−around.

l. When conducting visual approaches, pilots are encouraged to use other available navigational aids to assist

in positive lateral and vertical alignment with the assigned runway.

5−4−25. Contact Approach

a. Pilots operating in accordance with an IFR flight plan, provided they are clear of clouds and have at least

1 mile flight visibility and can reasonably expect to continue to the destination airport in those conditions, may

request ATC authorization for a contact approach.

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b. Controllers may authorize a contact approach provided:

1. The contact approach is specifically requested by the pilot. ATC cannot initiate this approach.

EXAMPLE−

Request contact approach.

2. The reported ground visibility at the destination airport is at least 1 statute mile.

3. The contact approach will be made to an airport having a standard or special instrument approach

procedure.

4. Approved separation is applied between aircraft so cleared and between these aircraft and other IFR or

special VFR aircraft.

EXAMPLE−

Cleared contact approach (and, if required) at or below (altitude) (routing) if not possible (alternative procedures) and

advise.

c. A contact approach is an approach procedure that may be used by a pilot (with prior authorization from

ATC) in lieu of conducting a standard or special IAP to an airport. It is not intended for use by a pilot on an IFR

flight clearance to operate to an airport not having a published and functioning IAP. Nor is it intended for an

aircraft to conduct an instrument approach to one airport and then, when “in the clear,” discontinue that approach

and proceed to another airport. In the execution of a contact approach, the pilot assumes the responsibility for

obstruction clearance. If radar service is being received, it will automatically terminate when the pilot is

instructed to change to advisory frequency.

5−4−26. Landing Priority

A clearance for a specific type of approach (ILS, RNA V , GLS, ADF, VOR or Visual Approach) to an aircraft

operating on an IFR flight plan does not mean that landing priority will be given over other traffic. ATCTs handle

all aircraft, regardless of the type of flight plan, on a “first−come, first−served” basis. Therefore, because of local

traffic or runway in use, it may be necessary for the controller in the interest of safety, to provide a different

landing sequence. In any case, a landing sequence will be issued to each aircraft as soon as possible to enable

the pilot to properly adjust the aircraft’s flight path.

5−4−27. Overhead Approach Maneuver

a. Pilots operating in accordance with an IFR flight plan in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) may

request ATC authorization for an overhead maneuver. An overhead maneuver is not an instrument approach

procedure. Overhead maneuver patterns are developed at airports where aircraft have an operational need to

conduct the maneuver. An aircraft conducting an overhead maneuver is considered to be VFR and the IFR flight

plan is canceled when the aircraft reaches the initial point on the initial approach portion of the maneuver. (See

FIG 5−4−34.) The existence of a standard overhead maneuver pattern does not eliminate the possible

requirement for an aircraft to conform to conventional rectangular patterns if an overhead maneuver cannot be

approved. Aircraft operating to an airport without a functioning control tower must initiate cancellation of an

IFR flight plan prior to executing the overhead maneuver. Cancellation of the IFR flight plan must be

accomplished after crossing the landing threshold on the initial portion of the maneuver or after landing.

Controllers may authorize an overhead maneuver and issue the following to arriving aircraft:

1. Pattern altitude and direction of traffic. This information may be omitted if either is standard.

PHRASEOLOGY−

P ATTERN ALTITUDE (altitude). RIGHT TURNS.

2. Request for a report on initial approach.

PHRASEOLOGY−

REPORT INITIAL.

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3. “Break” information and a request for the pilot to report. The “Break Point” will be specified if

nonstandard. Pilots may be requested to report “break” if required for traffic or other reasons.

PHRASEOLOGY−

BREAK AT (specified point).

REPORT BREAK.

FIG 5−4−34

Overhead Maneuver

INITIAL APPROACHINITIAL APPROACH

3 - 5 NM180° TURN

ROLL OUTROLL OUT

BREAK POINTBREAK POINT

180° TURN

INITIAL POINTINITIAL POINT

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Section 5. Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities

5−5−1. General

a. The roles and responsibilities of the pilot and controller for effective participation in the ATC system are

contained in several documents. Pilot responsibilities are in the CFRs and the air traffic controllers’ are in the

FAA Order JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, and supplemental FAA directives. Additional and supplemental

information for pilots can be found in the current Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM), Notices to Airmen,

Advisory Circulars and aeronautical charts. Since there are many other excellent publications produced by

nongovernment organizations, as well as other government organizations, with various updating cycles,

questions concerning the latest or most current material can be resolved by cross-checking with the above

mentioned documents.

b. The pilot−in−command of an aircraft is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to the safe

operation of that aircraft. In an emergency requiring immediate action, the pilot−in−command may deviate from

any rule in the General Subpart A and Flight Rules Subpart B in accordance with 14 CFR section 91.3.

c. The air traffic controller is responsible to give first priority to the separation of aircraft and to the issuance

of radar safety alerts, second priority to other services that are required, but do not involve separation of aircraft

and third priority to additional services to the extent possible.

d. In order to maintain a safe and efficient air traffic system, it is necessary that each party fulfill their

responsibilities to the fullest.

e. The responsibilities of the pilot and the controller intentionally overlap in many areas providing a degree

of redundancy. Should one or the other fail in any manner, this overlapping responsibility is expected to

compensate, in many cases, for failures that may affect safety.

f. The following, while not intended to be all inclusive, is a brief listing of pilot and controller responsibilities

for some commonly used procedures or phases of flight. More detailed explanations are contained in other

portions of this publication, the appropriate CFRs, ACs and similar publications. The information provided is

an overview of the principles involved and is not meant as an interpretation of the rules nor is it intended to extend

or diminish responsibilities.

5−5−2. Air Traffic Clearance

a. Pilot.

1. Acknowledges receipt and understanding of an ATC clearance.

2. Reads back any hold short of runway instructions issued by ATC.

3. Requests clarification or amendment, as appropriate, any time a clearance is not fully understood or

considered unacceptable from a safety standpoint.

4. Promptly complies with an air traffic clearance upon receipt except as necessary to cope with an

emergency. Advises ATC as soon as possible and obtains an amended clearance, if deviation is necessary.

NOTE−

A clearance to land means that appropriate separation on the landing runway will be ensured. A landing clearance does

not relieve the pilot from compliance with any previously issued altitude crossing restriction.

b. Controller.

1. Issues appropriate clearances for the operation to be conducted, or being conducted, in accordance with

established criteria.

2. Assigns altitudes in IFR clearances that are at or above the minimum IFR altitudes in controlled airspace.

Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities 5−5−1

AIM 2/20/25

3. Ensures acknowledgement by the pilot for issued information, clearances, or instructions.

4. Ensures that readbacks by the pilot of altitude, heading, or other items are correct. If incorrect, distorted,

or incomplete, makes corrections as appropriate.

5−5−3. Contact Approach

a. Pilot.

1. Must request a contact approach and makes it in lieu of a standard or special instrument approach.

2. By requesting the contact approach, indicates that the flight is operating clear of clouds, has at least one

mile flight visibility, and reasonably expects to continue to the destination airport in those conditions.

3. Assumes responsibility for obstruction clearance while conducting a contact approach.

4. Advises ATC immediately if unable to continue the contact approach or if encounters less than 1 mile

flight visibility.

5. Is aware that if radar service is being received, it may be automatically terminated when told to contact

the tower.

REFERENCE−

Pilot/Controller Glossary Term− Radar Service Terminated.

b. Controller.

1. Issues clearance for a contact approach only when requested by the pilot. Does not solicit the use of this

procedure.

2. Before issuing the clearance, ascertains that reported ground visibility at destination airport is at least 1

mile.

3. Provides approved separation between the aircraft cleared for a contact approach and other IFR or special

VFR aircraft. When using vertical separation, does not assign a fixed altitude, but clears the aircraft at or below

an altitude which is at least 1,000 feet below any IFR traffic but not below Minimum Safe Altitudes prescribed

in 14 CFR section 91.119.

4. Issues alternative instructions if, in their judgment, weather conditions may make completion of the

approach impracticable.

5−5−4. Instrument Approach

a. Pilot.

1. Be aware that the controller issues clearance for approach based only on known traffic.

2. Follows the procedure as shown on the IAP, including all restrictive notations, such as:

(a) Procedure not authorized at night;

(b) Approach not authorized when local area altimeter not available;

(c) Procedure not authorized when control tower not in operation;

(d) Procedure not authorized when glide slope not used;

(e) Straight-in minimums not authorized at night; etc.

(f) Radar required; or

(g) The circling minimums published on the instrument approach chart provide adequate obstruction

clearance and pilots should not descend below the circling altitude until the aircraft is in a position to make final

descent for landing. Sound judgment and knowledge of the pilot’s and the aircraft’s capabilities are the criteria

5−5−2 Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities

AIM2/20/257/9/26 AIM

for determining the exact maneuver in each instance since airport design and the aircraft position, altitude and

airspeed must all be considered.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 5−4−20, Approach and Landing Minimums.

3. Upon receipt of an approach clearance while on an unpublished route or being radar vectored:

(a) Complies with the minimum altitude for IFR; and

(b) Maintains the last assigned altitude until established on a segment of a published route or IAP, at

which time published altitudes apply.

4. There are currently two temperature limitations that may be published in the notes box of the middle

briefing strip on an instrument approach procedure (IAP). The two published temperature limitations are:

(a) A temperature range limitation associated with the use of baro−VNA V that may be published on a

United States PBN IAP titled RNA V (GPS) or RNA V (RNP); and/or

(b) A Cold Temperature Airport (CTA) limitation designated by a snowflake ICON and temperature in

Celsius (C) that is published on every IAP for the airfield.

5. Any planned altitude correction for the intermediate and/or missed approach holding segments must be

coordinated with ATC. Pilots do not have to advise ATC of a correction in the final segment.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Chapter 7, Section 3, Cold Temperature Barometric Altimeter Errors, Setting Procedures, and Cold Temperature Airports (CTA).

b. Controller.

1. Issues an approach clearance based on known traffic.

2. Issues an IFR approach clearance only after the aircraft is established on a segment of published route

or IAP, or assigns an appropriate altitude for the aircraft to maintain until so established.

5−5−5. Missed Approach

a. Pilot.

1. Executes a missed approach when one of the following conditions exist:

(a) Arrival at the Missed Approach Point (MAP) or the Decision Height (DH) and visual reference to the

runway environment is insufficient to complete the landing.

(b) Determines that a safe approach or landing is not possible (see subparagraph 5−4−21h).

(c) Instructed to do so by ATC.

2. Advises ATC that a missed approach will be made. Include the reason for the missed approach unless

the missed approach is initiated by ATC.

3. Complies with the missed approach instructions for the IAP being executed from the MAP, unless other

missed approach instructions are specified by ATC.

4. If executing a missed approach prior to reaching the MAP, fly the lateral navigation path of the instrument

procedure to the MAP. Climb to the altitude specified in the missed approach procedure, except when a maximum

altitude is specified between the final approach fix (FAF) and the MAP. In that case, comply with the maximum

altitude restriction. Note, this may require a continued descent on the final approach.

5. When applicable, apply cold temperature correction to missed approach segments. Advise ATC when

intending to apply cold temperature correction and of the amount of correction required for each affected

segment on initial contact (or as soon as possible). This information is required for ATC to provide aircraft

appropriate vertical separation between known traffic. The pilot must not apply an altitude correction to an

assigned altitude when provided an initial heading to fly or radar vector in lieu of published missed approach

procedures, unless approved by ATC.

Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities 5−5−3

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REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 5−1−17, Cold Temperature Operations.

AIM, Chapter 7, Section 3, Cold Temperature Barometric Altimeter Errors, Setting Procedures, and Cold Temperature Airports (CTA).

6. Following a missed approach, requests clearance for specific action; i.e., another approach, hold for

improved conditions, proceed to an alternate airport, etc.

b. Controller.

1. Issues an approved alternate missed approach procedure if it is desired that the pilot execute a procedure

other than as depicted on the instrument approach chart.

2. May vector a radar identified aircraft executing a missed approach when operationally advantageous to

the pilot or the controller.

3. In response to the pilot’s stated intentions, issues a clearance to an alternate airport, to a holding fix, or

for reentry into the approach sequence, as traffic conditions permit.

5−5−6. Vectors

a. Pilot.

1. Promptly complies with headings and altitudes assigned to you by the controller.

2. Questions any assigned heading or altitude believed to be incorrect.

3. If operating VFR and compliance with any radar vector or altitude would cause a violation of any CFR,

advises ATC and obtains a revised clearance or instructions.

b. Controller.

1. Vectors aircraft in Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E airspace:

(a) For separation.

(b) For noise abatement.

(c) To obtain an operational advantage for the pilot or controller.

2. Vectors aircraft in Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, Class E, and Class G airspace when requested by

the pilot.

3. Except where authorized for radar approaches, radar departures, special VFR, or when operating in

accordance with vectors below minimum altitude procedures, vector IFR aircraft at or above minimum vectoring

altitudes.

4. May vector aircraft off assigned procedures. When published altitude or speed restrictions are included,

controllers must assign an altitude, or if necessary, a speed.

5. May vector VFR aircraft, not at an A TC assigned altitude, at any altitude. In these cases, terrain separation

is the pilot’s responsibility.

5−5−7. Safety Alert

a. Pilot.

1. Initiates appropriate action if a safety alert is received from ATC.

2. Be aware that this service is not always available and that many factors affect the ability of the controller

to be aware of a situation in which unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions, or another aircraft may be

developing.

b. Controller.

1. Issues a safety alert if aware an aircraft under their control is at an altitude which, in the controller’s

judgment, places the aircraft in unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions or another aircraft. Types of safety alerts

are:

5−5−4 Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities

AIM2/20/257/9/26 AIM

(a) Terrain or Obstruction Alert. Immediately issued to an aircraft under their control if aware the

aircraft is at an altitude believed to place the aircraft in unsafe proximity to terrain or obstructions.

(b) Aircraft Conflict Alert. Immediately issued to an aircraft under their control if aware of an aircraft

not under their control at an altitude believed to place the aircraft in unsafe proximity to each other. With the alert,

they offer the pilot an alternative, if feasible.

2. Discontinue further alerts if informed by the pilot action is being taken to correct the situation or that the

other aircraft is in sight.

5−5−8. See and Avoid

a. Pilot. When meteorological conditions permit, regardless of type of flight plan or whether or not under

control of a radar facility, the pilot is responsible to see and avoid other traffic, terrain, or obstacles.

b. Controller.

1. Provides radar traffic information to radar identified aircraft operating outside positive control airspace

on a workload permitting basis.

2. Issues safety alerts to aircraft under their control if aware the aircraft is at an altitude believed to place

the aircraft in unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions, or other aircraft.

5−5−9. Speed Adjustments

a. Pilot.

1. Advises A TC any time cruising airspeed varies plus or minus 5 percent or 10 knots, whichever is greater,

from that given in the flight plan.

2. Complies with speed adjustments from ATC unless:

(a) The minimum or maximum safe airspeed for any particular operation is greater or less than the

requested airspeed. In such cases, advises ATC.

NOTE−

It is the pilot’ s responsibility and prerogative to refuse speed adjustments considered excessive or contrary to the aircraft’ s

operating specifications.

(b) Operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL on an ATC assigned SPEED ADJUSTMENT of more than

250 knots IAS and subsequent clearance is received for descent below 10,000 feet MSL. In such cases, pilots

are expected to comply with 14 CFR section 91.117(a).

3. When complying with speed adjustment assignments, maintains an indicated airspeed within plus or

minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach number of the specified speed.

b. Controller.

1. Assigns speed adjustments to aircraft when necessary but not as a substitute for good vectoring technique.

2. Adheres to the restrictions published in FAA Order JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, as to when speed

adjustment procedures may be applied.

3. Avoids speed adjustments requiring alternate decreases and increases.

4. Assigns speed adjustments to a specified IAS (KNOTS)/Mach number or to increase or decrease speed

using increments of 5 knots or multiples thereof.

5. Terminates ATC-assigned speed adjustments when no longer required by issuing further instructions to

pilots in the following manner:

(a) Advises pilots to “resume normal speed” when the aircraft is on a heading, random routing, charted

procedure, or route without published speed restrictions.

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(b) Instructs pilots to “comply with speed restrictions” when the aircraft is joining or resuming a charted

procedure or route with published speed restrictions.

CAUTION−

The phraseology “Climb via SID” requires compliance with all altitude and/or speed restrictions depicted on the

procedure.

(c) Instructs pilots to “resume published speed” when aircraft are cleared via a charted instrument flight

procedure that contains published speed restrictions.

(d) Advises aircraft to “delete speed restrictions” when ATC assigned or published speed restrictions on

a charted procedure are no longer required.

(e) Clears pilots for approach without restating previously issued speed adjustments.

REFERENCE−

Pilot/Controller Glossary Term − Resume Normal Speed.

Pilot/Controller Glossary Term − Resume Published Speed.

6. Gives due consideration to aircraft capabilities to reduce speed while descending.

7. Does not assign speed adjustments to aircraft at or above FL 390 without pilot consent.

5−5−10. Traffic Advisories (Traffic Information)

a. Pilot.

1. Acknowledges receipt of traffic advisories.

2. Informs controller if traffic in sight.

3. Advises ATC if a vector to avoid traffic is desired.

4. Does not expect to receive radar traffic advisories on all traffic. Some aircraft may not appear on the radar

display. Be aware that the controller may be occupied with higher priority duties and unable to issue traffic

information for a variety of reasons.

5. Advises controller if service is not desired.

b. Controller.

1. Issues radar traffic to the maximum extent consistent with higher priority duties except in Class A

airspace.

2. Provides vectors to assist aircraft to avoid observed traffic when requested by the pilot.

3. Issues traffic information to aircraft in the Class B, Class C, and Class D surface areas for sequencing

purposes.

4. Controllers are required to issue traffic advisories to each aircraft operating on intersecting or

nonintersecting converging runways where projected flight paths will cross.

5−5−11. Visual Approach

a. Pilot.

1. If a visual approach is not desired, advises ATC.

2. Complies with controller’s instructions for vectors toward the airport of intended landing or to a visual

position behind a preceding aircraft.

3. The pilot must, at all times, have either the airport or the preceding aircraft in sight. After being cleared

for a visual approach, proceed to the airport in a normal manner or follow the preceding aircraft. Remain clear

of clouds while conducting a visual approach.

5−5−6 Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities

AIM2/20/257/9/26 AIM

4. If the pilot accepts a visual approach clearance to visually follow a preceding aircraft, you are required

to establish a safe landing interval behind the aircraft you were instructed to follow. You are responsible for wake

turbulence separation.

5. Advise A TC immediately if the pilot is unable to continue following the preceding aircraft, cannot remain

clear of clouds, needs to climb, or loses sight of the airport.

6. In the event of a go−around, the pilot is responsible to maintain terrain and obstruction avoidance until

reaching an ATC assigned altitude if issued.

7. Be aware that radar service is automatically terminated, without being advised by ATC, when the pilot

is instructed to change to advisory frequency.

8. Be aware that there may be other traffic in the traffic pattern and the landing sequence may differ from

the traffic sequence assigned by approach control or ARTCC.

b. Controller.

1. Do not clear an aircraft for a visual approach unless reported weather at the airport is ceiling at or above

1,000 feet and visibility is 3 miles or greater. When weather is not available for the destination airport, inform

the pilot and do not initiate a visual approach to that airport unless there is reasonable assurance that descent and

flight to the airport can be made visually.

2. Issue visual approach clearance when the pilot reports sighting either the airport or a preceding aircraft

which is to be followed.

3. Provide separation except when visual separation is being applied by the pilot.

4. Continue flight following and traffic information until the aircraft has landed or has been instructed to

change to advisory frequency.

5. For all aircraft, inform the pilot when the preceding aircraft is a heavy. Inform the pilot of a small aircraft

when the preceding aircraft is a B757. Visual separation is prohibited behind super aircraft.

6. When weather is available for the destination airport, do not initiate a vector for a visual approach unless

the reported ceiling at the airport is 500 feet or more above the MV A and visibility is 3 miles or more. If vectoring

weather minima are not available but weather at the airport is ceiling at or above 1,000 feet and visibility of 3

miles or greater, visual approaches may still be conducted.

5−5−12. Visual Separation

a. Pilot.

1. Acceptance of instructions to follow another aircraft or to provide visual separation from it is an

acknowledgment that the pilot will maneuver the aircraft as necessary to avoid the other aircraft or to maintain

in-trail separation. Pilots are responsible to maintain visual separation until flight paths (altitudes and/or courses)

diverge.

2. If instructed by ATC to follow another aircraft or to provide visual separation from it, promptly notify

the controller if you lose sight of that aircraft, are unable to maintain continued visual contact with it, or cannot

accept the responsibility for your own separation for any reason.

3. The pilot also accepts responsibility for wake turbulence separation under these conditions.

b. Controller. Applies visual separation only:

1. Within the terminal area when a controller has both aircraft in sight or by instructing a pilot who sees the

other aircraft to maintain visual separation from it.

2. Pilots are responsible to maintain visual separation until flight paths (altitudes and/or courses) diverge.

3. Within en route airspace when aircraft are on opposite courses and one pilot reports having seen the other

aircraft and that the aircraft have passed each other.

Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities 5−5−7

AIM 2/20/25

5−5−13. VFR-on-top

a. Pilot.

1. This clearance must be requested by the pilot on an IFR flight plan, and if approved, allows the pilot the

choice (subject to any ATC restrictions) to select an altitude or flight level in lieu of an assigned altitude.

NOTE−

VFR−on−top is not permitted in certain airspace areas, such as Class A airspace, certain restricted areas, etc. Consequently,

IFR flights operating VFR−on−top will avoid such airspace.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 4−4−8, IFR Clearance VFR−on−top.

AIM, Para 4−4−11, IFR Separation Standards.

AIM, Para 5−3−2, Position Reporting.

AIM, Para 5−3−3, Additional Reports.

2. By requesting a VFR-on-top clearance, the pilot assumes the sole responsibility to be vigilant so as to

see and avoid other aircraft and to:

(a) Fly at the appropriate VFR altitude as prescribed in 14 CFR section 91.159.

(b) Comply with the VFR visibility and distance from clouds criteria in 14 CFR section 91.155, Basic

VFR Weather Minimums.

(c) Comply with instrument flight rules that are applicable to this flight; i.e., minimum IFR altitudes,

position reporting, radio communications, course to be flown, adherence to ATC clearance, etc.

3. Should advise ATC prior to any altitude change to ensure the exchange of accurate traffic information.

b. Controller.

1. May clear an aircraft to maintain VFR-on-top if the pilot of an aircraft on an IFR flight plan requests the

clearance.

2. Informs the pilot of an aircraft cleared to climb to VFR-on-top the reported height of the tops or that no

top report is available; issues an alternate clearance if necessary; and once the aircraft reports reaching

VFR-on-top, reclears the aircraft to maintain VFR-on-top.

3. Before issuing clearance, ascertain that the aircraft is not in or will not enter Class A airspace.

5−5−14. Instrument Departures

a. Pilot.

1. Prior to departure considers the type of terrain and other obstructions on or in the vicinity of the departure

airport.

2. Determines if obstruction avoidance can be maintained visually or that the departure procedure should

be followed.

3. Determines whether an obstacle departure procedure (ODP) and/or DP is available for obstruction

avoidance. One option may be a Visual Climb Over Airport (VCOA). Pilots must advise ATC as early as possible

of the intent to fly the VCOA prior to departure.

4. At airports where IAPs have not been published, hence no published departure procedure, determines

what action will be necessary and takes such action that will assure a safe departure.

b. Controller.

1. At locations with airport traffic control service, when necessary, specifies direction of takeoff, turn, or

initial heading to be flown after takeoff, consistent with published departure procedures (DP) or diverse vector

areas (DV A), where applicable.

2. At locations without airport traffic control service but within Class E surface area when necessary to

specify direction of takeoff, turn, or initial heading to be flown, obtains pilot’s concurrence that the procedure

will allow the pilot to comply with local traffic patterns, terrain, and obstruction avoidance.

5−5−8 Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities

2/20/25 AIM

3. When the initial heading will take the aircraft off an assigned procedure (for example, an RNA V SID with

a published lateral path to a waypoint and crossing restrictions from the departure end of runway), the controller

will assign an altitude to maintain with the initial heading.

4. Includes established departure procedures as part of the ATC clearance when pilot compliance is

necessary to ensure separation.

5. At locations with both SIDs and DV As, ATC will provide an amended departure clearance to cancel a

previously assigned SID and subsequently utilize a DV A or vice versa. The amended clearance will be provided

to the pilot in a timely manner so that the pilot may confirm adequate climb performance exists to determine if

the amended clearance is acceptable, and brief the changes in advance of entering the runway.

6. At locations with a DV A, ATC is not permitted to utilize a SID and DV A concurrently.

5−5−15. Minimum Fuel Advisory

a. Pilot.

1. Advise A TC of your minimum fuel status when your fuel supply has reached a state where, upon reaching

destination, you cannot accept any undue delay.

2. Be aware this is not an emergency situation, but merely an advisory that indicates an emergency situation

is possible should any undue delay occur.

3. On initial contact the term “minimum fuel” should be used after stating call sign.

EXAMPLE−

Salt Lake Approach, United 621, “minimum fuel.”

4. Be aware a minimum fuel advisory does not imply a need for traffic priority.

5. If the remaining usable fuel supply suggests the need for traffic priority to ensure a safe landing, you

should declare an emergency due to low fuel and report fuel remaining in minutes.

REFERENCE−

Pilot/Controller Glossary Term− Fuel Remaining.

b. Controller.

1. When an aircraft declares a state of minimum fuel, relay this information to the facility to whom control

jurisdiction is transferred.

2. Be alert for any occurrence which might delay the aircraft.

5−5−16. RNAV and RNP Operations

a. Pilot.

1. If unable to comply with the requirements of an RNA V or RNP procedure, pilots must advise air traffic

control as soon as possible. For example, “N1234, failure of GPS system, unable RNA V , request amended

clearance.”

2. Pilots are not authorized to fly a published RNA V or RNP procedure (instrument approach, departure,

or arrival procedure) unless it is retrievable by the procedure name from the current aircraft navigation database

and conforms to the charted procedure. The system must be able to retrieve the procedure by name from the

aircraft navigation database, not just as a manually entered series of waypoints.

3. Whenever possible, RNA V routes (Q− or T−route) should be extracted from the database in their entirety,

rather than loading RNA V route waypoints from the database into the flight plan individually. However, selecting

and inserting individual, named fixes from the database is permitted, provided all fixes along the published route

to be flown are inserted.

Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities 5−5−9

AIM 2/20/25

4. Pilots must not change any database waypoint type from a fly−by to fly−over, or vice versa. No other

modification of database waypoints or the creation of user−defined waypoints on published RNA V or RNP

procedures is permitted, except to:

(a) Change altitude and/or airspeed waypoint constraints to comply with an ATC clearance/instruction.

(b) Insert a waypoint along the published route to assist in complying with ATC instruction, example,

“Descend via the WILMS arrival except cross 30 north of BRUCE at/or below FL 210.” This is limited only to

systems that allow along−track waypoint construction.

5. Pilots of FMS−equipped aircraft, who are assigned an RNA V DP or STAR procedure and subsequently

receive a change of runway, transition or procedure, must verify that the appropriate changes are loaded and

available for navigation.

6. For RNA V 1 DPs and STARs, pilots must use a CDI, flight director and/or autopilot, in lateral navigation

mode. Other methods providing an equivalent level of performance may also be acceptable.

7. For RNA V 1 DPs and STARs, pilots of aircraft without GPS, using DME/DME/IRU, must ensure the

aircraft navigation system position is confirmed, within 1,000 feet, at the start point of take−off roll. The use of

an automatic or manual runway update is an acceptable means of compliance with this requirement. Other

methods providing an equivalent level of performance may also be acceptable.

8. For procedures or routes requiring the use of GPS, if the navigation system does not automatically alert

the flight crew of a loss of GPS, the operator must develop procedures to verify correct GPS operation.

9. RNA V terminal procedures (DP and STAR) may be amended by ATC issuing radar vectors and/or

clearances direct to a waypoint. Pilots should avoid premature manual deletion of waypoints from their active

“legs” page to allow for rejoining procedures.

10. RAIM Prediction: If TSO−C129 equipment is used to solely satisfy the RNA V and RNP requirement,

GPS RAIM availability must be confirmed for the intended route of flight (route and time). If RAIM is not

available, pilots need an approved alternate means of navigation.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 5−1−16, RNAV and RNP Operations.

11. Definition of “established” for RNA V and RNP operations. An aircraft is considered to be

established on-course during RNA V and RNP operations anytime it is within 1 times the required accuracy for

the segment being flown. For example, while operating on a Q-Route (RNA V 2), the aircraft is considered to be

established on-course when it is within 2 NM of the course centerline.

NOTE−

1. Pilots must be aware of how their navigation system operates, along with any AFM limitations, and confirm that the

aircraft’ s lateral deviation display (or map display if being used as an allowed alternate means) is suitable for the accuracy

of the segment being flown. Automatic scaling and alerting changes are appropriate for some operations. For example,

TSO-C129 systems change within 30 miles of destination and within 2 miles of F AF to support approach operations. For

some navigation systems and operations, manual selection of scaling will be necessary.

2. Pilots flying FMS equipped aircraft with barometric vertical navigation (Baro-VNAV) may descend when the aircraft is

established on-course following FMS leg transition to the next segment. Leg transition normally occurs at the turn bisector

for a fly-by waypoint (reference paragraph 1-2-1 for more on waypoints). When using full automation, pilots should monitor

the aircraft to ensure the aircraft is turning at appropriate lead times and descending once established on-course.

3. Pilots flying TSO-C129 navigation system equipped aircraft without full automation should use normal lead points to

begin the turn. Pilots may descend when established on-course on the next segment of the approach.

5−5−10 Pilot/Controller Roles and Responsibilities

2/20/25 AIM

Section 6. National Security and Interception Procedures

5−6−1. National Security

National security in the control of air traffic is governed by 14 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) part 99,

Security Control of Air Traffic.

5−6−2. National Security Requirements

a. Pursuant to 14 CFR 99.7, Special Security Instructions, each person operating an aircraft in an Air Defense

Identification Zone (ADIZ) or Defense Area must, in addition to the applicable rules of part 99, comply with

special security instructions issued by the FAA Administrator in the interest of national security, pursuant to

agreement between the FAA and the Department of Defense (DoD), or between the FAA and a U.S. Federal

security or intelligence agency.

b. In addition to the requirements prescribed in this section, national security requirements for aircraft

operations to or from, within, or transiting U.S. territorial airspace are in effect pursuant to 14 CFR 99.7; 49

United States Code (USC) 40103, Sovereignty and Use of Airspace; and 49 USC 41703, Navigation of Foreign

Civil Aircraft. Aircraft operations to or from, within, or transiting U.S. territorial airspace must also comply with

all other applicable regulations published in 14 CFR.

c. Due to increased security measures in place at many areas and in accordance with 14 CFR 91.103, Preflight

Action, prior to departure, pilots must become familiar with all available information concerning that flight.

Pilots are responsible to comply with 14 CFR 91.137 ( Temporary flight restrictions in the vicinity of

disaster/hazard areas), 91.138 (Temporary flight restrictions in national disaster areas in the State of Hawaii),

91.141 (Flight restrictions in the proximity of the Presidential and other parties), and 91.143 (Flight limitation

in the proximity of space flight operations) when conducting flight in an area where a temporary flight restrictions

area is in effect, and should check appropriate NOTAMs during flight planning. In addition, NOTAMs may be

issued for National Security Areas (NSA) that temporarily prohibit flight operations under the provisions of 14

CFR 99.7.

REFERENCE−

AIM, Para 3−4−8, National Security Areas.

AIM, Para 3−5−3, Temporary Flight Restrictions.

d. Noncompliance with the national security requirements for aircraft operations contained in this section

may result in denial of flight entry into U.S. territorial airspace or ground stop of the flight at a U.S. airport.

e. Pilots of aircraft that do not adhere to the procedures in the national security requirements for aircraft

operations contained in this section may be intercepted, and/or detained and interviewed by federal, state, or local

law enforcement or other government personnel.

5−6−3. Definitions

a. Air Defense Identification Zone (ADIZ) means an area of airspace over land or water, in which the ready

identification, location, and control of all aircraft (except Department of Defense and law enforcement aircraft)

is required in the interest of national security.

b. Defense Area means any airspace of the contiguous U.S. that is not an ADIZ in which the control of aircraft

is required for reasons of national security.

c. U.S. territorial airspace, for the purposes of this section, means the airspace over the U.S., its territories,

and possessions, and the airspace over the territorial sea of the U.S., which extends 12 nautical miles from the

baselines of the U.S., determined in accordance with international law.

d. To U.S. territorial airspace means any flight that enters U.S. territorial airspace after departure from a

location outside of the U.S., its territories or possessions, for landing at a destination in the U.S., its territories

or possessions.

National Security and Interception Procedures 5−6−1

AIM 2/20/25

e. From U.S. territorial airspace means any flight that exits U.S. territorial airspace after departure from a

location in the U.S., its territories or possessions, and lands at a destination outside the U.S., its territories or

possessions.

f. Within U.S. territorial airspace means any flight departing from a location inside of the U.S., its territories

or possessions, which operates en route to a location inside the U.S., its territories or possessions.

g. Transit or transiting U.S. territorial airspace means any flight departing from a location outside of the U.S.,

its territories or possessions, which operates in U.S. territorial airspace en route to a location outside the U.S.,

its territories or possessions without landing at a destination in the U.S., its territories or possessions.

h. Aeronautical facility, for the purposes of this section, means a communications facility where flight plans

or position reports are normally filed during flight operations.

5−6−4. ADIZ Requirements

a. To facilitate early identification of all aircraft in the vicinity of U.S. airspace boundaries, Air Defense

Identification Zones (ADIZ) have been established. All aircraft must meet certain requirements to facilitate early

identification when operating into, within, and across an ADIZ, as described in 14 CFR 99.

b. Requirements for aircraft operations are as follows:

1. Transponder Requirements. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, each aircraft conducting operations

into, within, or across the contiguous U.S. ADIZ must be equipped with an operable radar beacon transponder.

The transponder must be turned on and squawking a discrete beacon code assigned by ATC or issued by FSS

and displaying the aircraft altitude. Use of beacon code 1200 is not authorized. Use of the Universal Access

Transceiver (UAT) anonymity mode is not authorized.

(a) For air defense purposes, aircraft equipped with an operable 1090es (DO−260b) ADS−B system

operating outbound across the contiguous U.S. ADIZ may also be identified by the ICAO aircraft address

(otherwise known as the aircraft Mode S code). Therefore, use of a privacy ICAO aircraft address by outbound

aircraft is not authorized.

(b) Pilots of outbound VFR aircraft must squawk a discrete beacon code assigned by ATC or issued by

FSS.

(c) Nothing in this section changes the ADS−B OUT requirements of 14 CFR 91.225.

REFERENCE−

14 CFR 99.13, Transponder−On Requirements.

14 CFR 91.225, Automatic Dependent Surveillance−Broadcast (ADS−B) Out equipment and use.

2. Two−way Radio. In accordance with 14 CFR 99.9, Radio Requirements , any person operating in an

ADIZ must maintain two−way radio communication with an appropriate aeronautical facility. For two −way

radio communications failure, follow instructions contained in 14 CFR 99.9.

3. Flight Plan. In accordance with 14 CFR 99.11, Flight Plan Requirements, and 14 CFR 99.9, except as

specified in subparagraph 5−6−4e, no person may operate an aircraft into, within, or from a departure point within

an ADIZ, unless the person files, activates, and closes a flight plan with an appropriate aeronautical facility, or

is otherwise authorized by air traffic control as follows:

(a) Pilots must file an Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) flight plan or file a Defense Visual Flight Rules

(DVFR) flight plan containing the time and point of ADIZ penetration;

(b) The pilot must activate the DVFR flight plan with U.S. Flight Service and set the aircraft transponder

to the assigned discrete beacon code prior to entering the ADIZ;

(c) The IFR or DVFR aircraft must depart within 5 minutes of the estimated departure time contained

in the flight plan, except for (d) below;

(d) If the airport of departure within the Alaskan ADIZ has no facility for filing a flight plan, the flight

plan must be filed immediately after takeoff or when within range of an appropriate aeronautical facility;

5−6−2 National Security and Interception Procedures

2/20/25 AIM

(e) State aircraft (U.S. or foreign) planning to operate through an ADIZ should enter ICAO Code M in

Item 8 of the flight plan to assist in identification of the aircraft as a state aircraft.

c. Position Reporting Before Penetration of ADIZ.

In accordance with 14 CFR 99.15, Position Reports, before entering the ADIZ, the pilot must report to an

appropriate aeronautical facility as follows:

1. IFR flights in controlled airspace. The pilot must maintain a continuous watch on the appropriate

frequency and report the time and altitude of passing each designated reporting point or those reporting points

specified or requested by ATC, except that while the aircraft is under radar control, only the passing of those

reporting points specifically requested by ATC need be reported. (See 14 CFR 91.183(a), IFR Communications.)

2. DVFR flights and IFR flights in uncontrolled airspace:

(a) The time, position, and altitude at which the aircraft passed the last reporting point before penetration

and the estimated time of arrival over the next appropriate reporting point along the flight route;

(b) If there is no appropriate reporting point along the flight route, the pilot reports at least 15 minutes

before penetration: the estimated time, position, and altitude at which the pilot will penetrate; or

(c) If the departure airport is within an ADIZ or so close to the ADIZ boundary that it prevents the pilot

from complying with (a) or (b) above, the pilot must report immediately after departure: the time of departure,

the altitude, and the estimated time of arrival over the first reporting point along the flight route.

3. Foreign civil aircraft. If the pilot of a foreign civil aircraft that intends to enter the U.S. through an ADIZ

cannot comply with the reporting requirements in subparagraphs c1 or c2 above, as applicable, the pilot must

report the position of the aircraft to the appropriate aeronautical facility not less than 1 hour and not more than

2 hours average direct cruising distance from the U.S.

d. Land−Based ADIZ. Land−Based ADIZ are activated and deactivated over U.S. metropolitan areas as

needed, with dimensions, activation dates and other relevant information disseminated via NOTAM. Pilots

unable to comply with all NOTAM requirements must remain clear of Land −Based ADIZ. Pilots entering a

Land−Based ADIZ without authorization or who fail to follow all requirements risk interception by military

fighter aircraft.

e. Exceptions to ADIZ requirements.

1. Except for the national security requirements in paragraph 5−6−2, transponder requirements in

subparagraph 5−6−4b1, and position reporting in subparagraph 5−6−4c, the ADIZ requirements in 14 CFR part

99 described in this section do not apply to the following aircraft operations pursuant to section 99.1(b),

Applicability:

(a) Within the 48 contiguous States or within the State of Alaska, on a flight which remains within 10

NM of the point of departure;

(b) Operating at true airspeed of less than 180 knots in the Hawaii ADIZ or over any island, or within

12 NM of the coastline of any island, in the Hawaii ADIZ;

(c) Operating at true airspeed of less than 180 knots in the Alaska ADIZ while the pilot maintains a

continuous listening watch on the appropriate frequency; or

(d) Operating at true airspeed of less than 180 knots in the Guam ADIZ.

2. An FAA air route traffic control center (ARTCC) may exempt certain aircraft operations on a local basis

in concurrence with the DoD or pursuant to an agreement with a U.S. Federal security or intelligence agency.

(See 14 CFR 99.1 for additional information.)

f. A VFR flight plan filed inflight makes an aircraft subject to interception for positive identification when

entering an ADIZ. Pilots are therefore urged to file the required DVFR flight plan either in person or by telephone

prior to departure when able.

National Security and Interception Procedures 5−6−3

AIM 2/20/25

5−6−5. Civil Aircraft Operations To or From U.S. Territorial Airspace

a. Civil aircraft, except as described in subparagraph 5−6−5b below, are authorized to operate to or from U.S.

territorial airspace if in compliance with all of the following conditions:

1. File and are on an active flight plan (IFR, VFR, or DVFR);

2. Are equipped with an operational transponder with altitude reporting capability, and continuously

squawk an ATC assigned transponder code;

3. Maintain two−way radio communications with ATC;

4. Comply with all other applicable ADIZ requirements described in paragraph 5 −6−4 and any other

national security requirements in paragraph 5−6−2;

5. Comply with all applicable U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) requirements, including Advance

Passenger Information System (APIS) requirements (see subparagraph 5−6−5c below for CBP APIS

information), in accordance with 19 CFR part 122, Air Commerce Regulations; and

6. Are in receipt of, and are operating in accordance with, an FAA routing authorization if the aircraft is

registered in a U.S. State Department−designated special interest country or is operating with the ICAO three

letter designator (3LD) of a company in a country listed as a U.S. State Department−designated special interest

country, unless the operator holds valid FAA part 129 operations specifications. VFR and DVFR flight

operations are prohibited for any aircraft requiring an FAA routing authorization. (See paragraph 5 −6−11 for

FAA routing authorization information).

b. Civil aircraft registered in the U.S., Canada, or Mexico with a maximum certificated takeoff gross weight

of 100,309 pounds (45,500 kgs) or less that are operating without an operational transponder, and/or the ability

to maintain two−way radio communications with ATC, are authorized to operate to or from U.S. territorial

airspace over Alaska if in compliance with all of the following conditions:

1. Depart and land at an airport within the U.S. or Canada;

2. Enter or exit U.S. territorial airspace over Alaska north of the fifty−fourth parallel;

3. File and are on an active flight plan;

4. Comply with all other applicable ADIZ requirements described in paragraph 5 −6−4 and any other

national security requirements in paragraph 5−6−2;

5. Squawk 1200 if VFR and equipped with a transponder; and

6. Comply with all applicable U.S. CBP requirements, including Advance Passenger Information System

(APIS) requirements (see subparagraph 5−6−5c below for CBP APIS information), in accordance with 19 CFR

part 122, Air Commerce Regulations.

c. CBP APIS Information. Information about U.S. CBP APIS requirements is available at

http://www.cbp.gov.

5−6−6. Civil Aircraft Operations Within U.S. Territorial Airspace

a. Civil aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff gross weight less than or equal to 100,309 pounds

(45,500 kgs) are authorized to operate within U.S. te rritorial airspace in accordance with all applicable

regulations and VFR in airport traffic pattern areas of U.S. airports near the U.S. border, except for those

described in subparagraph 5−6−6b below.

b. Civil aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff gross weight less than or equal to 100,309 pounds

(45,500 kgs) and registered in a U.S. State Department−designated special interest country or operating with the

ICAO 3LD of a company in a country listed as a U.S. State Department −designated special interest country,

unless the operator holds valid FAA part 129 operations specifications, must operate within U.S. territorial

5−6−4 National Security and Interception Procedures

2/20/25 AIM

airspace in accordance with the same requirements as civil aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff gross

weight greater than 100,309 pounds (45,500 kgs), as described in subparagraph 5−6−6c below.

c. Civil aircraft with a maximum certificated takeoff gross weight greater than 100,309 pounds (45,500 kgs)

are authorized to operate within U.S. territorial airspace if in compliance with all of the following conditions:

1. File and are on an active flight plan (IFR or VFR);

2. Equipped with an operational transponder with altitude reporting capability, and continuously squawk

an ATC assigned transponder code;

3. Equipped with an operational ADS−B Out when operating in airspace specified in 14 CFR 91.225;

4. Maintain two−way radio communications with ATC;

5. Aircraft not registered in the U.S. must operate under an approved Transportation Security

Administration (TSA) aviation security program (see paragraph 5 −6−10 for TSA aviation security program

information) or in accordance with an FAA/TSA airspace waiver (see paragraph 5−6−9 for FAA/TSA airspace

waiver information), except as authorized in 5−6−6c7. below;

6. Are in receipt of, and are operating in accordance with an FAA routing authorization and an FAA/TSA

airspace waiver if the aircraft is registered in a U.S. State Department−designated special interest country or is

operating with the ICAO 3LD of a company in a country listed as a U.S. State Department−designated special

interest country, unless the operator holds valid FAA part 129 operations specifications. VFR and DVFR flight

operations are prohibited for any aircraft requiring an FAA routing authorization. (See paragraph 5 −6−11 for

FAA routing authorization information.); and

7. Aircraft not registered in the U.S., when conducting post −maintenance, manufacturer, production, or

acceptance flight test operations, are exempt from the requirements in 5 −6−6c5 above if all of the following

requirements are met:

(a) A U.S. company must have operational control of the aircraft;

(b) An FAA−certificated pilot must serve as pilot in command;

(c) Only crewmembers are permitted onboard the aircraft; and

(d) “Maintenance Flight” is included in the remarks section of the flight plan.

5−6−7. Civil Aircraft Operations Transiting U.S. Territorial Airspace

a. Civil aircraft (except those operating in accordance with subparagraphs 5 −6−7b, 5−6−7c, 5−6−7d, and

5−6−7e) are authorized to transit U.S. territorial airspace if in compliance with all of the following conditions:

1. File and are on an active flight plan (IFR, VFR, or DVFR);

2. Equipped with an operational transponder with altitude reporting capability and continuously squawk

an ATC assigned transponder code;

3. Equipped with an operational ADS−B Out when operating in airspace specified in 14 CFR 91.225;

4. Maintain two−way radio communications with ATC;

5. Comply with all other applicable ADIZ requirements described in paragraph 5 −6−4 and any other

national security requirements in paragraph 5−6−2;

6. Are operating under an approved TSA aviation security program (see paragraph 5−6−10 for TSA aviation

security program information) or are operating with and in accordance with an FAA/TSA airspace waiver (see

paragraph 5−6−9 for FAA/TSA airspace waiver information), if:

(a) The aircraft is not registered in the U.S.; or

(b) The aircraft is registered in the U.S. and its maximum takeoff gross weight is greater than 100,309

pounds (45,500 kgs);

National Security and Interception Procedures 5−6−5

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7. Are in receipt of, and are operating in accordance with, an FAA routing authorization if the aircraft is

registered in a U.S. State Department−designated special interest country or is operating with the ICAO 3LD of

a company in a country listed as a U.S. State Department−designated special interest country, unless the operator

holds valid FAA part 129 operations specifications. VFR and DVFR flight operations are prohibited for any

aircraft requiring an FAA routing authorization. (See paragraph 5−6−11 for FAA routing authorization

information.)

b. Civil aircraft registered in Canada or Mexico, and engaged in operations for the purposes of air ambulance,

firefighting, law enforcement, search and rescue, or emergency evacuation are authorized to transit U.S.

territorial airspace within 50 NM of their respective borders with the U.S., with or without an active flight plan,

provided they have received and continuously transmit an ATC−assigned transponder code.

c. Civil aircraft registered in Canada, Mexico, Bahamas, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, or the British Virgin

Islands with a maximum certificated takeoff gross weight of 100,309 pounds (45,500 kgs) or less are authorized

to transit U.S. territorial airspace if in compliance with all of the following conditions:

1. File and are on an active flight plan (IFR, VFR, or DVFR) that enters U.S. territorial airspace directly

from any of the countries listed in this subparagraph 5−6−7c. Flights that include a stop in a non−listed country

prior to entering U.S. territorial airspace must comply with the requirements prescribed by subparagraph 5−6−7a

above, including operating under an approved TSA aviation security program (see paragraph 5−6−10 for TSA

aviation program information) or operating with, and in accordance with, an FAA/TSA airspace waiver (see

paragraph 5−6−9 for FAA/TSA airspace waiver information).

2. Equipped with an operational transponder with altitude reporting capability and continuously squawk

an ATC assigned transponder code;

3. Equipped with an operational ADS−B Out when operating in airspace specified in 14 CFR 91.225;

4. Maintain two−way radio communications with ATC; and

5. Comply with all other applicable ADIZ requirements described in paragraph 5 −6−4 and any other

national security requirements in paragraph 5−6−2.

d. Civil aircraft registered in Canada, Mexico, Bahamas, Bermuda, Cayman Islands, or the British Virgin

Islands with a maximum certificated takeoff gross weight greater than 100,309 pounds (45,500 kgs) must

comply with the requirements subparagraph 5 −6−7a, including operating under an approved TSA aviation

security program (see paragraph 5 −6−10 for TSA aviation program information) or operating with, and in

accordance with, an FAA/TSA airspace waiver (see paragraph 5−6−9 for FAA/TSA airspace waiver

information).

e. Civil aircraft registered in the U.S., Canada, or Mexico with a maximum certificated takeoff gross weight

of 100,309 pounds (45,500 kgs) or less that are operating without an operational transponder and/or the ability

to maintain two−way radio communications with ATC, are authorized to transit U.S. territorial airspace over

Alaska if in compliance with all of the following conditions:

1. Enter and exit U.S. territorial airspace over Alaska north of the fifty−fourth parallel;

2. File and are on an active flight plan;

3. Squawk 1200 if VFR and equipped with a transponder.

4. Comply with all other applicable ADIZ requirements described in paragraph 5 −6−4 and any other

national security requirements in paragraph 5−6−2.

5−6−8. Foreign State Aircraft Operations

a. Foreign state aircraft are authorized to operate in U.S. territorial airspace if in compliance with all of the

following conditions:

1. File and are on an active IFR flight plan;

5−6−6 National Security and Interception Procedures

2/20/25 AIM

2. Equipped with an operational transponder with altitude reporting capability and continuously squawk

an ATC assigned transponder code;

3. Equipped with an operational ADS−B Out when operating in airspace specified in 14 CFR 91.225;

4. Maintain two−way radio communications with ATC; and

5. Comply with all other applicable ADIZ requirements described in paragraph 5 −6−4 and any other

national security requirements in paragraph 5−6−2.

b. Diplomatic Clearances. Foreign state aircraft may operate to or from, within, or in transit of U.S. territorial

airspace only when authorized by the U.S. State Department by means of a diplomatic clearance, except as

described in subparagraph 5−6−8i below.

1. Information about diplomatic clearances is available at the U.S. State Department website

https://www.state.gov/diplomatic−aircraft−clearance−procedures−for−foreign−state−aircraft−to−operate−in−

united−states−national−airspace/ (lower case only).

2. A diplomatic clearance may be initiated by contacting the U.S. State Department via email at

[email protected] or via phone at (202) 453−8390.

NOTE−

A diplomatic clearance is not required for foreign state aircraft operations that transit U.S. controlled oceanic airspace but

do not enter U.S. territorial airspace. (See subparagraph 5−6−8d for flight plan information.)

c. An FAA routing authorization for state aircraft operations of special interest countries listed in

subparagraph 5−6−11b. is required before the U.S. State Department will issue a diplomatic clearance for such

operations. (See subparagraph 5−6−11 for FAA routing authorizations information).

d. Foreign state aircraft operating with a diplomatic clearance must navigate U.S. territorial airspace on an

active IFR flight plan, unless specifically approved for VFR flight operations by the U.S. State Department in

the diplomatic clearance.

NOTE−

Foreign state aircraft operations to or from, within, or transiting U.S. territorial airspace; or transiting any U.S. controlled

oceanic airspace, should enter ICAO code M in Item 8 of the flight plan to assist in identification of the aircraft as a state

aircraft.

e. A foreign aircraft that operates to or from, within, or in transit of U.S. territorial airspace while conducting

a state aircraft operation is not authorized to change its status as a state aircraft during any portion of the approved,

diplomatically cleared itinerary.

f. A foreign aircraft described in subparagraph 5 −6−8e above may operate from or within U.S. territorial

airspace as a civil aircraft operation, once it has completed its approved, diplomatically cleared itinerary, if the

aircraft operator is:

1. A foreign air carrier that holds valid FAA part 129 operations specifications; and

2. Is in compliance with all other requirements applied to foreign civil aircraft operations from or within

U.S. territorial airspace. (See paragraphs 5−6−5 and 5−6−6.)

g. Foreign state aircraft operations are not authorized to or from Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport

(KDCA).

h. Foreign state aircraft operating with a U.S. Department of State issued Diplomatic Clearance Number in

the performance of official missions are author ized to deviate from the Automatic Dependent

Surveillance−Broadcast (ADS−B) Out requirements contained in 14 CFR §§ 91.225 and 91.227. All foreign state

aircraft and/or operators associated with Department of Defense missions should contact their respective offices

for further information on handling. Foreign state aircraft not associated with Department of Defense should

coordinate with U.S. Department of State through the normal diplomatic clearance process.

i. Diplomatic Clearance Exceptions. State aircraft operations on behalf of the governments of Canada and

Mexico conducted for the purposes of air ambulance, firefighting, law enforcement, search and rescue, or

National Security and Interception Procedures 5−6−7

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emergency evacuation are authorized to transit U.S. territorial airspace within 50 NM of their respective borders

with the U.S., with or without an active flight plan, provided they have received and continuously transmit an

ATC assigned transponder code. State aircraft operations on behalf of the governments of Canada and Mexico

conducted under this subparagraph 5−6−8h are not required to obtain a diplomatic clearance from the U.S. State

Department.

5−6−9. FAA/TSA Airspace Waivers

a. Operators may submit requests for FAA/TSA airspace waivers at https://waivers.faa.gov by selecting

“international” as the waiver type.

b. Information regarding FAA/TSA airspace waivers can be found at:

http://www.tsa.gov/for−industry/general−aviation or can be obtained by contacting TSA at (571) 227−2071.

c. All existing FAA/TSA waivers issued under previous FDC NOTAMS remain valid until the expiration date

specified in the waiver, unless sooner superseded or rescinded.

5−6−10. TSA Aviation Security Programs

a. Applicants for U.S. air operator certificates will be provided contact information for TSA aviation security

programs by the U.S. Department of Transportation during the certification process.

b. For information about applicable TSA security programs:

1. U.S. air carriers and commercial operators must contact their TSA Principal Security Specialist (PSS);

and

2. Foreign air carriers must contact their International Industry Representative (IIR).

5−6−11. FAA Flight Routing Authorizations

a. Information about FAA routing authorizations for U.S. State Department −designated special interest

country flight operations to or from, within, or transiting U.S. territorial airspace is available by country at:

1. FAA website http://www.faa.gov/air_traffic/publications/us_restrictions/; or

2. Phone by contacting the FAA System Operations Support Center (SOSC) at (202) 267−8115.

b. Special Interest Countries. The U.S. State Department−designated special interest countries are Cuba, Iran,

The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea), The People’s Republic of China, The Russian

Federation, Sudan, and Syria.

NOTE−

F AA flight routing authorizations are not required for aircraft registered in Hong Kong, Taiwan, or Macau.

c. Aircraft operating with the ICAO 3LD assigned to a company or entity from a country listed as a State

Department−designated special interest country and holding valid FAA part 129 operations specifications do not

require FAA flight routing authorization.

d. FAA routing authorizations will only be granted for IFR operations. VFR and DVFR flight operations are

prohibited for any aircraft requiring an FAA routing authorization.

5−6−12. Emergency Security Control of Air Traffic (ESCAT)

a. During defense emergency or air defense emergency conditions, additional special security instructions

may be issued in accordance with 32 CFR part 245, Plan for the Emergency Security Control of Air Traffic

(ESCAT).

b. Under the provisions of 32 CFR part 245, the military will direct the action to be taken in regard to landing,

grounding, diversion, or dispersal of aircraft in the defense of the U.S. during emergency conditions.

5−6−8 National Security and Interception Procedures

2/20/25 AIM

c. At the time a portion or all of ESCAT is implemented, ATC facilities will broadcast appropriate instructions

received from the Air Traffic Control System Command Center (ATCSCC) over available ATC frequencies.

Depending on instructions received from the ATCSCC, VFR flights may be directed to land at the nearest

available airport, and IFR flights will be expected to proceed as directed by ATC.

d. Pilots on the ground may be required to file a flight plan and obtain an approval (through FAA) prior to

conducting flight operation.

5−6−13. Interception Procedures

a. General.

1. In conjunction with the FAA, Air Defense Sectors monitor air traffic and could order an intercept in the

interest of national security or defense. Intercepts during peacetime operations are vastly different than those

conducted under increased states of readiness. The interceptors may be fighters or rotary wing aircraft. The

reasons for aircraft intercept include, but are not limited to:

(a) Identify an aircraft;

(b) Track an aircraft;

(c) Inspect an aircraft;

(d) Divert an aircraft;

(e) Establish communications with an aircraft.

2. When specific information is required (i.e., markings, serial numbers, etc.) the interceptor pilot(s) will

respond only if, in their judgment, the request can be conducted in a safe manner. Intercept procedures are

described in some detail in the paragraphs below. In all situations, the interceptor pilot will consider safety of

flight for all concerned throughout the intercept procedure. The interceptor pilot(s) will use caution to avoid

startling the intercepted crew or passengers and understand that maneuvers considered normal for interceptor

aircraft may be considered hazardous to other aircraft.

3. All aircraft operating in US national airspace are highly encouraged to maintain a listening watch on

VHF/UHF guard frequencies (121.5 or 243.0 MHz). If subjected to a military intercept, it is incumbent on

civilian aviators to understand their responsibilities and to comply with ICAO standard signals relayed from the

intercepting aircraft. Specifically, aviators are expected to contact air traffic control without delay (if able) on

the local operating frequency or on VHF/UHF guard. Noncompliance may result in the use of force.

b. Fighter intercept phases (see FIG 5−6−1).

1. Approach Phase.

As standard procedure, intercepted aircraft are approached from behind. Typically, interceptor aircraft will be

employed in pairs, however, it is not uncommon for a single aircraft to perform the intercept operation. Safe

separation between interceptors and intercepted aircraft is the responsibility of the intercepting aircraft and will

be maintained at all times.

2. Identification Phase.

Interceptor aircraft will initiate a controlled closure toward the aircraft of interest, holding at a distance no closer

than deemed necessary to establish positive identification and to gather the necessary information. The

interceptor may also fly past the intercepted aircraft while gathering data at a distance considered safe based on

aircraft performance characteristics.

3. Post Intercept Phase.

An interceptor may attempt to establish communications via standard ICAO signals. In time-critical situations

where the interceptor is seeking an immediate response from the intercepted aircraft or if the intercepted aircraft

remains non-compliant to instruction, the interceptor pilot may initiate a divert maneuver. In this maneuver, the

interceptor flies across the intercepted aircraft’s flight path (minimum 500 feet separation and commencing from

National Security and Interception Procedures 5−6−9

AIM 2/20/25

slightly below the intercepted aircraft altitude) in the general direction the intercepted aircraft is expected to turn.

The interceptor will rock its wings (daytime) or flash external lights/select afterburners (night) while crossing

the intercepted aircraft’s flight path. The interceptor will roll out in the direction the intercepted aircraft is

expected to turn before returning to verify the aircraft of interest is complying. The intercepted aircraft is

expected to execute an immediate turn to the direction of the intercepting aircraft. If the aircraft of interest does

not comply, the interceptor may conduct a second climbing turn across the intercepted aircraft’s flight path

(minimum 500 feet separation and commencing from slightly below the intercepted aircraft altitude) while

expending flares as a warning signal to the intercepted aircraft to comply immediately and to turn in the direction

indicated and to leave the area. The interceptor is responsible to maintain safe separation during these and all

intercept maneuvers. Flight safety is paramount.

NOTE−

1. NORAD interceptors will take every precaution to preclude the possibility of the intercepted aircraft experiencing jet

wash/wake turbulence; however, there is a potential that this condition could be encountered.

2. During Night/IMC, the intercept will be from below flight path.

FIG 5−6−1

Intercept Procedures

c. Helicopter Intercept phases (see FIG 5−6−2).

1. Approach Phase. Aircraft intercepted by helicopter may be approached from any direction, although

the helicopter should close for identification and signaling from behind. Generally, the helicopter will approach

off the left side of the intercepted aircraft. Safe separation between the helicopter and the unidentified aircraft

will be maintained at all times.

2. Identification Phase. The helicopter will initiate a controlled closure toward the aircraft of interest,

holding at a distance no closer than deemed necessary to establish positive identification and gather the necessary

information. The intercepted pilot should expect the interceptor helicopter to take a position off his left wing

slightly forward of abeam.

3. Post Intercept Phase. Visual signaling devices may be used in an attempt to communicate with the

intercepted aircraft. Visual signaling devices may include, but are not limited to, LED scrolling signboards or

blue flashing lights. If compliance is not attained through the use of radios or signaling devices, standard ICAO

5−6−10 National Security and Interception Procedures

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intercept signals (TBL 5−6−1) may be employed. In order to maintain safe aircraft separation, it is incumbent

upon the pilot of the intercepted aircraft not to fall into a trail position (directly behind the helicopter) if instructed

to follow the helicopter. This is because the helicopter pilot may lose visual contact with the intercepted aircraft.

NOTE−

Intercepted aircraft must not follow directly behind the helicopter thereby allowing the helicopter pilot to maintain visual

contact with the intercepted aircraft and ensuring safe separation is maintained.

FIG 5−6−2

Helicopter Intercept Procedures

d. Summary of Intercepted Aircraft Actions. An intercepted aircraft must, without delay:

1. Adhere to instructions relayed through the use of visual devices, visual signals, and radio

communications from the intercepting aircraft.

2. Attempt to establish radio communications with the intercepting aircraft or with the appropriate air traffic

control facility by making a general call on guard frequencies (121.5 or 243.0 MHz), giving the identity, position,

and nature of the flight.

3. If transponder equipped, select Mode 3/A Code 7700 unless otherwise instructed by air traffic control.

NOTE−

If instruction received from any agency conflicts with that given by the intercepting aircraft through visual or radio

communications, the intercepted aircraft must seek immediate clarification.

4. The crew of the intercepted aircraft must continue to comply with interceptor aircraft signals and

instructions until positively released.

5−6−14. Interception Signals

TBL 5−6−1 and TBL 5−6−2.

National Security and Interception Procedures 5−6−11

AIM 2/20/25

TBL 5−6−1

Intercepting Signals

INTERCEPTING SIGNALS

Signals initiated by intercepting aircraft and responses by intercepted aircraft

(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.1)

Series INTERCEPTING Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTED Aircraft Responds Meaning

1 DAY−Rocking wings from a position

slightly above and ahead of, and normally

to the left of, the intercepted aircraft and,

after acknowledgement, a slow level turn,

normally to the left, on to the desired

heading.

NIGHT-Same and, in addition, flashing

navigational lights at irregular intervals.

NOTE 1 −Meteorological conditions or

terrain may require the intercepting

aircraft to take up a position slightly above

and ahead of, and to the right of, the

intercepted aircraft and to make the

subsequent turn to the right.

NOTE 2−If the intercepted aircraft is not

able to keep pace with the intercepting

aircraft, the latter is expected to fly a series

of race−track patterns and to rock its wings

each time it passes the intercepted aircraft.

You have

been

intercepted.

Follow me.

AEROPLANES:

DAY−Rocking wings and following.

NIGHT−Same and, in addition, flashing

navigational lights at irregular intervals.

HELICOPTERS:

DAY or NIGHT−Rocking aircraft, flashing

navigational lights at irregular intervals and

following.

Understood,

will comply.

2 DAY or NIGHT− An abrupt break −away

maneuver from the intercepted aircraft

consisting of a climbing turn of 90 degrees

or more without crossing the line of flight

of the intercepted aircraft.

You may

proceed.

AEROPLANES:

DAY or NIGHT-Rocking wings.

HELICOPTERS:

DAY or NIGHT−Rocking aircraft.

Understood,

will comply.

3 DAY−Circling aerodrome, lowering land-

ing gear and overflying runway in direction

of landing or, if the intercepted aircraft is a

helicopter, overflying the helicopter land-

ing area.

NIGHT−Same and, in addition, showing

steady landing lights.

Land at this

aerodrome.

AEROPLANES:

DAY−Lowering landing gear, following

the intercepting aircraft and, if after

overflying the runway landing is consid-

ered safe, proceeding to land.

NIGHT−Same and, in addition, showing

steady landing lights (if carried).

HELICOPTERS:

DAY or NIGHT-Following the intercepting

aircraft and proceeding to land, showing a

steady landing light (if carried).

Understood,

will comply.

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TBL 5−6−2

Intercepting Signals

INTERCEPTING SIGNALS

Signals and Responses During Aircraft Intercept

Signals initiated by intercepted aircraft and responses by intercepting aircraft

(as set forth in ICAO Annex 2-Appendix 1, 2.2)

Series INTERCEPTED Aircraft Signals Meaning INTERCEPTING Aircraft Responds Meaning

4 DAY or NIGHT−Raising landing gear (if

fitted) and flashing landing lights while

passing over runway in use or helicopter

landing area at a height exceeding 300m

(1,000 ft) but not exceeding 600m

(2,000 ft) (in the case of a helicopter, at a

height exceeding 50m (170 ft) but not

exceeding 100m (330 ft) above the

aerodrome level, and continuing to circle

runway in use or helicopter landing area. If

unable to flash landing lights, flash any

other lights available.

Aerodrome

you have

designated is

inadequate.

DAY or NIGHT− If it is desired that the

intercepted aircraft follow the intercepting

aircraft to an alternate aerodrome, the

intercepting aircraft raises its landing gear

(if fitted) and uses the Series 1 signals

prescribed for intercepting aircraft.

If it is decided to release the intercepted

aircraft, the intercepting aircraft uses the

Series 2 signals prescribed for intercepting

aircraft.

Understood,

follow me.

Understood,

you may

proceed.

5 DAY or NIGHT−Regular switching on and

off of all available lights but in such a

manner as to be distinct from flashing

lights.

Cannot

comply.

DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals

prescribed for intercepting aircraft.

Understood.

6 DAY or NIGHT−Irregular flashing of all

available lights.

In distress. DAY or NIGHT-Use Series 2 signals

prescribed for intercepting aircraft.

Understood.

National Security and Interception Procedures 5−6−13

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5−6−14 National Security and Interception Procedures

5−6−15. ADIZ Boundaries and Designated Mountainous Areas (See FIG 5−6−3.)

FIG 5−6−3

Air Defense Identification Zone Boundaries

Designated Mountainous Areas

� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � �

� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � �

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2/20/25 AIM

5−6−16. Visual Warning System (VWS)

The VWS signal consists of highly-focused red and green colored laser lights designed to illuminate in an

alternating red and green signal pattern. These lasers may be directed at specific aircraft suspected of making

unauthorized entry into the Washington, DC Special Flight Rules Area (DC SFRA) proceeding on a heading or

flight path that may be interpreted as a threat or that operate contrary to the operating rules for the DC SFRA.

The beam is neither hazardous to the eyes of pilots/aircrew or passengers, regardless of altitude or distance from

the source nor will the beam affect aircraft systems.

a. If you are communicating with ATC, and this signal is directed at your aircraft, you are required to contact

ATC and advise that you are being illuminated by a visual warning system.

b. If this signal is directed at you, and you are not communicating with ATC, you are advised to turn to the

most direct heading away from the center of the DC SFRA as soon as possible. Immediately contact ATC on an

appropriate frequency, VHF Guard 121.5 or UHF Guard 243.0, and provide your aircraft identification, position,

and nature of the flight. Failure to follow these procedures may result in interception by military aircraft. Further

noncompliance with interceptor aircraft or ATC may result in the use of force.

c. Pilots planning to operate aircraft in or near the DC SFRA are to familiarize themselves with aircraft

intercept procedures. This information applies to all aircraft operating within the DC SFRA including DoD, Law

Enforcement, and aircraft engaged in aeromedical operations and does not change procedures established for

reporting unauthorized laser illumination as published in FAA Advisory Circulars and Notices.

REFERENCE−

CFR 91.161.

d. More details including a video demonstration of the VWS are available from the following FAA website:

www.faasafety.gov/VisualWarningSystem/VisualWarning.htm.

National Security and Interception Procedures 5−6−15

2/20/25 AIM

Chapter 6. Emergency Procedures

Section 1. General

6−1−1. Pilot Responsibility and Authority

a. The pilot−in−command of an aircraft is directly responsible for and is the final authority as to the operation

of that aircraft. In an emergency requiring immediate action, the pilot−in−command may deviate from any rule

in 14 CFR part 91, Subpart A, General, and Subpart B, Flight Rules, to the extent required to meet that emergency.

NOTE−

In the event of a pilot incapacitation, an Emergency Autoland system or an emergency descent system may assume operation

of the aircraft and deviate to meet that emergency.

REFERENCE−

14 CFR Section 91.3(b).

b. If the emergency authority of 14 CFR section 91.3(b) is used to deviate from the provisions of an ATC

clearance, the pilot−in−command must notify ATC as soon as possible and obtain an amended clearance.

c. Unless deviation is necessary under the emergency authority of 14 CFR section 91.3, pilots of IFR flights

experiencing two-way radio communications failure are expected to adhere to the procedures prescribed under

“IFR operations, two-way radio communications failure.”

REFERENCE−

14 CFR Section 91.185.

6−1−2. Emergency Condition − Request Assistance Immediately

a. An emergency can be either a distress or urgency condition as defined in the Pilot/Controller Glossary.

Pilots do not hesitate to declare an emergency when they are faced with distress conditions such as fire,

mechanical failure, or structural damage. However, some are reluctant to report an urgency condition when they

encounter situations which may not be immediately perilous, but are potentially catastrophic. An aircraft is in

at least an urgency condition the moment the pilot becomes doubtful about position, fuel endurance, weather,

or any other condition that could adversely affect flight safety. This is the time to ask for help, not after the

situation has developed into a distress condition.

b. Pilots who become apprehensive for their safety for any reason should request assistance immediately.

Ready and willing help is available in the form of radio, radar, direction finding stations and other aircraft. Delay

has caused accidents and cost lives. Safety is not a luxury! Take action!

General 6−1−1

2/20/25 AIM

Section 2. Emergency Services Available to Pilots

6−2−1. Radar Service for VFR Aircraft in Difficulty

a. Radar equipped ATC facilities can provide radar assistance and navigation service (vectors) to VFR aircraft

in difficulty when the pilot can talk with the controller, and the aircraft is within radar coverage. Pilots should

clearly understand that authorization to proceed in accordance with such radar navigational assistance does not

constitute authorization for the pilot to violate CFRs. In effect, assistance is provided on the basis that

navigational guidance information is advisory in nature, and the responsibility for flying the aircraft safely

remains with the pilot.

b. Experience has shown that many pilots who are not qualified for instrument flight cannot maintain control

of their aircraft when they encounter clouds or other reduced visibility conditions. In many cases, the controller

will not know whether flight into instrument conditions will result from ATC instructions. To avoid possible

hazards resulting from being vectored into IFR conditions, a pilot in difficulty should keep the controller advised

of the current weather conditions being encountered and the weather along the course ahead and observe the

following:

1. If a course of action is available which will permit flight and a safe landing in VFR weather conditions,

noninstrument rated pilots should choose the VFR condition rather than requesting a vector or approach that will

take them into IFR weather conditions; or

2. If continued flight in VFR conditions is not possible, the noninstrument rated pilot should so advise the

controller and indicating the lack of an instrument rating, declare a distress condition; or

3. If the pilot is instrument rated and current, and the aircraft is instrument equipped, the pilot should so

indicate by requesting an IFR flight clearance. Assistance will then be provided on the basis that the aircraft can

operate safely in IFR weather conditions.

6−2−2. Transponder Emergency Operation

a. When a distress or urgency condition is encountered, the pilot of an aircraft with a coded radar beacon

transponder, who desires to alert a ground radar facility, should squawk Mode 3/A, Code 7700/Emergency and

Mode C altitude reporting and then immediately establish communications with the ATC facility.

b. Radar facilities are equipped so that Code 7700 normally triggers an alarm or special indicator at all control

positions. Pilots should understand that they might not be within a radar coverage area. Therefore, they should

continue squawking Code 7700 and establish radio communications as soon as possible.

6−2−3. Intercept and Escort

a. The concept of airborne intercept and escort is based on the Search and Rescue (SAR) aircraft establishing

visual and/or electronic contact with an aircraft in difficulty, providing in-flight assistance, and escorting it to

a safe landing. If bailout, crash landing or ditching becomes necessary, SAR operations can be conducted without

delay. For most incidents, particularly those occurring at night and/or during instrument flight conditions, the

availability of intercept and escort services will depend on the proximity of SAR units with suitable aircraft on

alert for immediate dispatch. In limited circumstances, other aircraft flying in the vicinity of an aircraft in

difficulty can provide these services.

b. If specifically requested by a pilot in difficulty or if a distress condition is declared, SAR coordinators will

take steps to intercept and escort an aircraft. Steps may be initiated for intercept and escort if an urgency condition

is declared and unusual circumstances make such action advisable.

c. It is the pilot’s prerogative to refuse intercept and escort services. Escort services will normally be provided

to the nearest adequate airport. Should the pilot receiving escort services continue onto another location after

Emergency Services Available to Pilots 6−2−1

AIM 2/20/25

reaching a safe airport, or decide not to divert to the nearest safe airport, the escort aircraft is not obligated to

continue and further escort is discretionary. The decision will depend on the circumstances of the individual

incident.

6−2−4. Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)

a. General.

1. ELTs are required for most General Aviation airplanes.

REFERENCE−

14 CFR SECTION 91.207.

2. ELTs of various types were developed as a means of locating downed aircraft. These electronic, battery

operated transmitters operate on one of three frequencies. These operating frequencies are 121.5 MHz, 243.0

MHz, and the newer 406 MHz. ELTs operating on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz are analog devices. The newer

406 MHz ELT is a digital transmitter that can be encoded with the owner’s contact information or aircraft data.

The latest 406 MHz ELT models can also be encoded with the aircraft’s position data which can help SAR forces

locate the aircraft much more quickly after a crash. The 406 MHz ELTs also transmits a stronger signal when

activated than the older 121.5 MHz ELTs.

(a) The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requires 406 MHz ELTs be registered with the

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) as outlined in the ELTs documentation. The FAA’s

406 MHz ELT Technical Standard Order (TSO) TSO−C126 also requires that each 406 MHz ELT be registered

with NOAA. The reason is NOAA maintains the owner registration database for U.S. registered 406 MHz

alerting devices, which includes ELTs. NOAA also operates the United States’ portion of the Cospas −Sarsat

satellite distress alerting system designed to detect activated 406 MHz ELTs and other distress alerting devices.

(b) As of 2009, the Cospas−Sarsat system terminated monitoring and reception of the 121.5 MHz and

243.0 MHz frequencies. What this means for pilots is that those aircraft with only 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz

ELTs onboard will have to depend upon either a nearby air traffic control facility receiving the alert signal or an

overflying aircraft monitoring 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz detecting the alert and advising ATC.

(c) In the event that a properly registered 406 MHz ELT activates, the Cospas−Sarsat satellite system can

decode the owner’s information and provide that data to the appropriate search and rescue (SAR) center. In the

United States, NOAA provides the alert data to the appropriate U.S. Air Force Rescue Coordination Center

(RCC) or U.S. Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Center. That RCC can then telephone or contact the owner to

verify the status of the aircraft. If the aircraft is safely secured in a hangar, a costly ground or airborne search is

avoided. In the case of an inadvertent 406 MHz ELT activation, the owner can deactivate the 406 MHz ELT. If

the 406 MHz ELT equipped aircraft is being flown, the RCC can quickly activate a search. 406 MHz ELTs permit

the Cospas−Sarsat satellite system to narrow the search area to a more confined area compared to that of a 121.5

MHz or 243.0 MHz ELT. 406 MHz ELTs also include a low −power 121.5 MHz homing transmitter to aid

searchers in finding the aircraft in the terminal search phase.

(d) Each analog ELT emits a distinctive downward swept audio tone on 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz.

(e) If “armed” and when subject to crash−generated forces, ELTs are designed to automatically activate

and continuously emit their respective signals, analog or digital. The transmitters will operate continuously for

at least 48 hours over a wide temperature range. A properly installed, maintained, and functioning ELT can

expedite search and rescue operations and save lives if it survives the crash and is activated.

(f) Pilots and their passengers should know how to activate the aircraft’s ELT if manual activation is

required. They should also be able to verify the aircraft’s ELT is functioning and transmitting an alert after a crash

or manual activation.

(g) Because of the large number of 121.5 MHz ELT false alerts and the lack of a quick means of verifying

the actual status of an activated 121.5 MHz or 243.0 MHz analog ELT through an owner registration database,

U.S. SAR forces do not respond as quickly to initial 121.5/243.0 MHz ELT alerts as the SAR forces do to 406

6−2−2 Emergency Services Available to Pilots

2/20/25 AIM

MHz ELT alerts. Compared to the almost instantaneous detection of a 406 MHz ELT, SAR forces’ normal

practice is to wait for confirmation of an overdue aircraft or similar notification. In some cases, this confirmation

process can take hours. SAR forces can initiate a response to 406 MHz alerts in minutes compared to the potential

delay of hours for a 121.5/243.0 MHz ELT. Therefore, due to the obvious advantages of 406 MHz beacons and

the significant disadvantages to the older 121.5/243.0 MHz beacons, and considering that the International

Cospas−Sarsat Program stopped the monitoring of 121.5/243.0 MHz by satellites on February 1, 2009, all aircraft

owners/operators are highly encouraged by both NOAA and the FAA to consider making the switch to a digital

406 MHz ELT beacon. Further, for non−aircraft owner pilots, check the ELT installed in the aircraft you are

flying, and as appropriate, obtain a personal locator beacon transmitting on 406 MHz.

b. Testing.

1. ELTs should be tested in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions, preferably in a shielded or

screened room or specially designed test container to prevent the broadcast of signals which could trigger a false

alert.

2. When this cannot be done, aircraft operational testing is authorized as follows:

(a) Analog 121.5/243 MHz ELTs should only be tested during the first 5 minutes after any hour. If

operational tests must be made outside of this period, they should be coordinated with the nearest FAA Control

Tower. Tests should be no longer than three audible sweeps. If the antenna is removable, a dummy load should

be substituted during test procedures.

(b) Digital 406 MHz ELTs should only be tested in accordance with the unit’s manufacturer’s

instructions.

(c) Airborne tests are not authorized.

c. False Alarms.

1. Caution should be exercised to prevent the inadvertent activation of ELTs in the air or while they are being

handled on the ground. Accidental or unauthorized activation will generate an emergency signal that cannot be

distinguished from the real thing, leading to expensive and frustrating searches. A false ELT signal could also

interfere with genuine emergency transmissions and hinder or prevent the timely location of crash sites. Frequent

false alarms could also result in complacency and decrease the vigorous reaction that must be attached to all ELT

signals.

2. Numerous cases of inadvertent activation have occurred as a result of aerobatics, hard landings,

movement by ground crews and aircraft maintenance. These false alarms can be minimized by monitoring 121.5

MHz and/or 243.0 MHz as follows:

(a) In flight when a receiver is available.

(b) Before engine shut down at the end of each flight.

(c) When the ELT is handled during installation or maintenance.

(d) When maintenance is being performed near the ELT.

(e) When a ground crew moves the aircraft.

(f) If an ELT signal is heard, turn off the aircraft’s ELT to determine if it is transmitting. If it has been

activated, maintenance might be required before the unit is returned to the “ARMED” position. You should

contact the nearest Air Traffic facility and notify it of the inadvertent activation.

d. Inflight Monitoring and Reporting.

1. Pilots are encouraged to monitor 121.5 MHz and/or 243.0 MHz while inflight to assist in identifying

possible emergency ELT transmissions. On receiving a signal, report the following information to the nearest

air traffic facility:

Emergency Services Available to Pilots 6−2−3

AIM 2/20/25

(a) Your position at the time the signal was first heard.

(b) Your position at the time the signal was last heard.

(c) Your position at maximum signal strength.

(d) Your flight altitudes and frequency on which the emergency signal was heard: 121.5 MHz or 243.0

MHz. If possible, positions should be given relative to a navigation aid. If the aircraft has homing equipment,

provide the bearing to the emergency signal with each reported position.

6−2−5. FAA K −9 Explosives Detection Team Program

a. The FAA’s Office of Civil Aviation Security Operations manages the FAA K−9 Explosives Detection Team

Program which was established in 1972. Through a unique agreement with law enforcement agencies and airport

authorities, the FAA has strategically placed FAA−certified K−9 teams (a team is one handler and one dog) at

airports throughout the country. If a bomb threat is received while an aircraft is in flight, the aircraft can be

directed to an airport with this capability. The FAA provides initial and refresher training for all handlers,

provides single purpose explosive detector dogs, and requires that each team is annually evaluated in five areas

for FAA certification: aircraft (widebody and narrowbody), vehicles, terminal, freight (cargo), and luggage. If

you desire this service, notify your company or an FAA air traffic control facility.

b. The following list shows the locations of current FAA K−9 teams:

TBL 6−2−1

FAA Sponsored Explosives Detection Dog/Handler Team Locations

Airport Symbol Location

ATL Atlanta, Georgia

BHM Birmingham, Alabama

BOS Boston, Massachusetts

BUF Buffalo, New York

CLT Charlotte, North Carolina

ORD Chicago, Illinois

CVG Cincinnati, Ohio

DFW Dallas, Texas

DEN Denver, Colorado

DTW Detroit, Michigan

IAH Houston, Texas

JAX Jacksonville, Florida

MCI Kansas City, Missouri

LAX Los Angeles, California

MEM Memphis, Tennessee

Airport Symbol Location

MIA Miami, Florida

MKE Milwaukee, Wisconsin

MSY New Orleans, Louisiana

MCO Orlando, Florida

PHX Phoenix, Arizona

PIT Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

PDX Portland, Oregon

SLC Salt Lake City, Utah

SFO San Francisco, California

SJU San Juan, Puerto Rico

SEA Seattle, Washington

STL St. Louis, Missouri

TUS Tucson, Arizona

TUL Tulsa, Oklahoma

c. If due to weather or other considerations an aircraft with a suspected hidden explosive problem were to land

or intended to land at an airport other than those listed in b above, it is recommended that they call the FAA’s

Washington Operations Center (telephone 202−267−3333, if appropriate) or have an air traffic facility with

which you can communicate contact the above center requesting assistance.

6−2−6. Search and Rescue

a. General. SAR is a lifesaving service provided through the combined efforts of the federal agencies

signatory to the National SAR Plan, and the agencies responsible for SAR within each state. Operational

resources are provided by the U.S. Coast Guard, DoD components, the Civil Air Patrol, the Coast Guard

Auxiliary, state, county and local law enforcement and other public safety agencies, and private volunteer

6−2−4 Emergency Services Available to Pilots

2/20/25 AIM

organizations. Services include search for missing aircraft, survival aid, rescue, and emergency medical help for

the occupants after an accident site is located.

b. National Search and Rescue Plan. By federal interagency agreement, the National Search and Rescue

Plan provides for the effective use of all available facilities in all types of SAR missions. These facilities include

aircraft, vessels, pararescue and ground rescue teams, and emergency radio fixing. Under the plan, the U.S. Coast

Guard is responsible for the coordination of SAR in the Maritime Region, and the USAF is responsible in the

Inland Region. To carry out these responsibilities, the Coast Guard and the Air Force have established Rescue

Coordination Centers (RCCs) to direct SAR activities within their regions. For aircraft emergencies, distress,

and urgency, information normally will be passed to the appropriate RCC through an ARTCC or FSS.

c. Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers. (See TBL 6−2−2.)

TBL 6−2−2

Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers

Coast Guard Rescue Coordination Centers

Alameda, CA

510−437−3701

Miami, FL

305−415−6800

Boston, MA

617−223−8555

New Orleans, LA

504−589−6225

Cleveland, OH

216−902−6117

Portsmouth, V A

757−398−6390

Honolulu, HI

808−541−2500

Seattle, WA

206−220−7001

Juneau, AK

907−463−2000

San Juan, PR

787−289−2042

d. Air Force Rescue Coordination Centers. (See TBL 6−2−3 and TBL 6−2−4.)

TBL 6−2−3

Air Force Rescue Coordination Center

48 Contiguous States

Air Force Rescue Coordination Center

Tyndall AFB, Florida Phone

Commercial 850−283−5955

WATS 800−851−3051

DSN 523−5955

TBL 6−2−4

Air Command Rescue Coordination Center

Alaska

Alaskan Air Command Rescue

Coordination Center

Elmendorf AFB, Alaska Phone

Commercial 907−428−7230

800−420−7230

(outside Anchorage)

DSN 317−551−7230

e. Joint Rescue Coordination Center. (See TBL 6−2−5.)

Emergency Services Available to Pilots 6−2−5

AIM 2/20/25

TBL 6−2−5

Joint Rescue Coordination Center

Hawaii

Honolulu Joint Rescue Coordination Center

HQ 14th CG District

Honolulu Phone

Commercial 808−541−2500

DSN 448−0301

f. Emergency and Overdue Aircraft.

1. ARTCCs and FSSs will alert the SAR system when information is received from any source that an

aircraft is in difficulty, overdue, or missing.

(a) Radar facilities providing radar flight following or advisories consider the loss of radar and radios,

without service termination notice, to be a possible emergency. Pilots receiving VFR services from radar

facilities should be aware that SAR may be initiated under these circumstances.

(b) A filed flight plan is the most timely and effective indicator that an aircraft is overdue. Flight plan

information is invaluable to SAR forces for search planning and executing search efforts.

2. Prior to departure on every flight, local or otherwise, someone at the departure point should be advised

of your destination and route of flight if other than direct. Search efforts are often wasted and rescue is often

delayed because of pilots who thoughtlessly takeoff without telling anyone where they are going. File a flight

plan for your safety.

3. According to the National Search and Rescue Plan, “The life expectancy of an injured survivor decreases

as much as 80 percent during the first 24 hours, while the chances of survival of uninjured survivors rapidly

diminishes after the first 3 days.”

4. An Air Force Review of 325 SAR missions conducted during a 23−month period revealed that “Time

works against people who experience a distress but are not on a flight plan, since 36 hours normally pass before

family concern initiates an (alert).”

g. VFR Search and Rescue Protection.

1. To receive this valuable protection, file a VFR or DVFR Flight Plan with an FAA FSS. For maximum

protection, file only to the point of first intended landing, and refile for each leg to final destination. When a

lengthy flight plan is filed, with several stops en route and an ETE to final destination, a mishap could occur on

any leg, and unless other information is received, it is probable that no one would start looking for you until 30

minutes after your ETA at your final destination.

2. If you land at a location other than the intended destination, report the landing to the nearest FAA FSS

and advise them of your original destination.

3. If you land en route and are delayed more than 30 minutes, report this information to the nearest FSS and

give them your original destination.

4. If your ETE changes by 30 minutes or more, report a new ETA to the nearest FSS and give them your

original destination. Remember that if you fail to respond within one-half hour after your ETA at final

destination, a search will be started to locate you.

5. It is important that you close your flight plan IMMEDIATELY AFTER ARRIVAL AT YOUR FINAL

DESTINATION WITH THE FSS DESIGNATED WHEN YOUR FLIGHT PLAN WAS FILED. The pilot is

responsible for closure of a VFR or DVFR flight plan; they are not closed automatically. This will prevent

needless search efforts.

6. The rapidity of rescue on land or water will depend on how accurately your position may be determined.

If a flight plan has been followed and your position is on course, rescue will be expedited.

6−2−6 Emergency Services Available to Pilots

2/20/25 AIM

h. Survival Equipment.

1. For flight over uninhabited land areas, it is wise to take and know how to use survival equipment for the

type of climate and terrain.

2. If a forced landing occurs at sea, chances for survival are governed by the degree of crew proficiency in

emergency procedures and by the availability and effectiveness of water survival equipment.

i. Body Signal Illustrations.

1. If you are forced down and are able to attract the attention of the pilot of a rescue airplane, the body signals

illustrated on these pages can be used to transmit messages to the pilot circling over your location.

2. Stand in the open when you make the signals.

3. Be sure the background, as seen from the air, is not confusing.

4. Go through the motions slowly and repeat each signal until you are positive that the pilot understands

you.

j. Observance of Downed Aircraft.

1. Determine if crash is marked with a yellow cross; if so, the crash has already been reported and identified.

2. If possible, determine type and number of aircraft and whether there is evidence of survivors.

3. Fix the position of the crash as accurately as possible with reference to a navigational aid. If possible,

provide geographic or physical description of the area to aid ground search parties.

4. Transmit the information to the nearest FAA or other appropriate radio facility.

5. If circumstances permit, orbit the scene to guide in other assisting units until their arrival or until you are

relieved by another aircraft.

6. Immediately after landing, make a complete report to the nearest FAA facility, or Air Force or Coast

Guard Rescue Coordination Center. The report can be made by a long distance collect telephone call.

Emergency Services Available to Pilots 6−2−7