Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3C)
Chapter 2: Ground Operations
Introduction
Experienced pilots place a strong emphasis on ground operations as this is where safe flight begins and ends. They know that hasty
ground operations diminish their margin of safety. A smart pilot takes advantage of this phase of flight to assess various factors
including the regulatory requirements, the pilot’s readiness for pilot-in-command (PIC) responsibilities, the airplane’s condition, the
flight environment, and any external pressures that could lead to inadequate control of risk.
Flying an airplane presents many new responsibilities not required for other forms of transportation. Focus is often placed on the
flying portion itself with less emphasis placed on ground operations. However pilots need to allow time for flight preparation.
Situational awareness begins during preparation and only ends when the airplane is safely and securely returned to its tie-down or
hangar, or if a decision is made not to go.
This chapter covers the essential elements for the regulatory basis of flight including:
1. An airplane’s airworthiness requirements,
2. Important inspection items when conducting a preflight visual inspection,
3. Managing risk and resources, and
4. Proper and effective airplane surface movements using the AFM/POH and airplane checklists.
Preflight Assessment of the Aircraft
The visual preflight assessment mitigates airplane flight hazards. The preflight assessment ensures that any aircraft flown meets
regulatory airworthiness standards and is in a safe mechanical condition prior to flight. Per 14 CFR part 3, section 3.5(a), the
term “airworthy” means that the aircraft conforms to its type design and is in condition for safe operation. The owner/operator is
primarily responsible for maintenance, but in accordance with 14 CFR part 91, section 91.7(a) and (b) no person may operate a civil
aircraft unless it is in an airworthy condition and the pilot in command of a civil aircraft is responsible for determining whether the
aircraft is in condition for safe flight. The pilot's inspection should involve the following:
1. Inspecting the airplane’s airworthiness status.
2. Following the AFM/POH to determine the required items for visual inspection. [Figures 2-1, 2-2, 2-3].
Figure 2-1. Pilots should view the aircraft’s maintenance logbook prior to flight to ensure the aircraft is safe to fly.
Figure 2-2. A visual inspection of the aircraft before flight is an important step in mitigating airplane flight hazards.
Figure 2-3. Airplane Flight Manuals (AFM) and the Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) for each individual aircraft explain the
required items for inspection.
Each airplane has a set of logbooks that include airframe and engine, and in some cases, propeller and appliance logbooks, which are
used to record maintenance, alteration, and inspections performed on a specific airframe, engine, propeller, or appliance. It is
important that the logbooks be kept accurate, secure, and available for inspection. Airplane logbooks are not normally kept in the
airplane. It should be a matter of procedure by the pilot to inspect the airplane logbooks or a summary of the airworthy status prior to
flight to ensure that the airplane records of maintenance, alteration, and inspections are current and correct. [Figure 2-4] The
following is required:
⦁ Annual inspection within the preceding 12 calendar months (Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(14 CFR) part 91, section 91.409(a))
⦁ 100-hour inspection, if the aircraft is operated for hire (14 CFR part 91, section 91.409(b))
⦁ Transponder certification within the preceding 24 calendar months (14 CFR part 91, section 91.413)
⦁ Static system and encoder certification, within the preceding 24 calendar months, required for instrument
flight rules (IFR) flight in controlled airspace (14 CFR part 91, section 91.411)
⦁ 30-day VHF omnidirectional range (VOR) equipment check when using the VOR system of radio
navigation for IFR flight (14 CFR part 91, section 91.171)
⦁ Emergency locator transmitter (ELT) inspection within the last 12 months (14 CFR part 91, section
1.207(d))
⦁ ELT battery due (14 CFR part 91, section 91.207(c))
⦁ Current status of life limited parts per Type Certificate Data Sheets (TCDS) (14 CFR part 91, section
1.417)
⦁ Status, compliance, logbook entries for airworthiness directives (ADs) (14 CFR part 91, section 91.417(a)
(
2)(v))
⦁ Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Form 337, Major Repair or Alteration (14 CFR part 91, section
1.417)
⦁ Inoperative equipment (14 CFR part 91, section 91.213)
Figure 2-4. A sample airworthiness checklist used by pilots to inspect an aircraft.
A review determines if the required maintenance and inspections have been performed on the airplane. Any discrepancies need to be
addressed prior to flight. Once the pilot has determined that the airplane’s logbooks provide factual assurance that the airplane meets
its airworthiness requirements, it is appropriate to inspect the airplane visually. The visual preflight inspection of the airplane should
begin while approaching the airplane on the ramp. The pilot should make note of the general appearance of the airplane, looking for
discrepancies such as misalignment of the landing gear and airplane structure. The pilot should also take note of any distortions of the
wings, fuselage, and tail, as well as skin damage and any staining, dripping, or puddles of fuel or oils.
The pilot needs to determine that the following documents are, as appropriate, on board, attached, or affixed to the airplane:
⦁ Current Airworthiness Certificate (14 CFR part 91, section 91.203)
⦁ Current Registration Certificate (14 CFR part 91, section 91.203)
⦁ Radio station license for flights outside the United States or airplanes greater than 12,500 pounds (Federal
ommunications Commission (FCC) rule)
⦁ Operating limitations, which may be in the form of an FAA-approved AFM/POH, placards, instrument
arkings, or any combination thereof (14 CFR part 91, section 91.9)
⦁ Current weight and balance data
⦁ Compass correction card, if required under applicable airworthiness standards
⦁ External data plate (14 CFR part 45, section 45.11)
Visual Preflight Assessment
The inspection should start with the cabin door. If the door is hard to open or close, does not fit snugly, or the door latches do not
engage or disengage smoothly, the surrounding structure, such as the doorpost, should be inspected for misalignment, which could
indicate structural damage. The visual preflight inspection should continue to the interior of the cabin or flight deck where carpeting
should be inspected to ensure that it is serviceable, dry, and properly affixed; seat belts and shoulder harnesses should be inspected to
ensure that they are free from fraying, latch properly, and are securely attached to their mounting fittings; seats should be inspected to
ensure that the seats properly latch into the seat rails through the seat lock pins and that seat rail holes are not abnormally worn to an
oval shape; [Figure 2-5] the windshield and windows should be inspected to ensure that they are clean and free from cracks, and
crazing. A dirty, scratched, and/or a severely crazed window can result in near zero visibility due to light refraction at c ertain angles
from the sun.
Figure 2-5. Seats should be inspected to ensure that they are properly latched into the seat rails and checked for damage.
The AFM/POH or a third party checklist based on the AFM/POH may be used to conduct the visual preflight inspection, and each
manufacturer has a specified sequence for conducting the actions. In general, the following items are likely to be included in the
AFM/POH preflight inspection:
⦁ Landing gear control is DOWN, if applicable.
⦁ Master, alternator, and magneto switches are OFF.
⦁ Control column locks are REMOVED.
⦁ Fuel selectors should be checked for proper operation in all positions, including the OFF position.
Sti
ff fuel selectors or where the tank position is not legible or lacking detents are unacceptable.
⦁ Trim wheels, which include elevator and may include rudder and aileron, are set for takeoff position.
⦁ Me chanical air-driven gyro instruments should be inspected for signs of hazing on the instrument
face, which may indicate leaks.
⦁ Avionics master is OFF.
⦁ Circuit breakers checked IN.
⦁ Confirm that the landing gear handle is in the DOWN position, then turn the master switch ON. Note
th
e fuel quantities on the fuel gauges and compare to the tank level by visual inspection. If so
equipped, fuel pumps may be placed in the ON position to verify fuel pressure in the proper
operating range.
⦁ Other items may include checking that lights for both the interior and exterior airplane positions are
perating and checking any annunciator panels.
⦁ If the airplane has retractable gear, landing gear down an d locked lights are checked green.
⦁ Flight instruments should read as follows:
⦁ Airspeed should read zero.
⦁ The altimeter, when properly set to the current barometric setting, should indicate the field
elev
ation within 75 feet for IFR flight.
⦁ I f installed, the magnetic compass should indicate the airplane’s direction accurately; and the
compass correction card should be legible and complete. For conventional wet magnetic
co
mpasses, the instrument face should be clear and the instrument case full of fluid. A cloudy
instrument face, bubbles in the fluid, or a partially filled case renders the compass unusable.
⦁ The vertical speed indictor (VSI) should read zero. If the VSI does not show a zero reading, a
mall screwdriver can be used to zero this instrument if not part of an electronic display. The
mechanical VSI is the only flight instrument that a pilot has the prerogative to adjust. All others
need to be adjusted by an FAA-certificated repairman or mechanic.
⦁ Avionics master switch ON to check avionics. Avionics master switch OFF, master switch OFF.
Aircraft equipped with Integrated Flight Deck (IFD) “glass-panel” avionics and supporting systems have specific requirements for
checking prior to flight. Ground-based inspections may include verification that the flight deck reference guide is in the aircraft and
accessible; checking of system driven removal of “Xs” over engine indicators; checking pitot/static and attitude displays; testing of
low level alarms and annunciator panels; setting of fuel levels; and verification that the avionics cooling fans, if equipped,
are functional. [Figure 2-6] The AFM/POH specifies how these preflight inspections are to take place. Since an advanced
avionics aircraft preflight checklist may be extensive, pilots should allow time to ensure that all items are properly addressed.
Figure 2- 6. Ground-based inspections include verification that “Xs” on the instrument display are displayed until the sensor
activates.
Outer Wing Surfaces and Tail Section
Generally, the AFM/POH specifies a sequence for the pilot to inspect the aircraft that may sequence from the cabin entry acce ss
opening and then in a counterclockwise direction until the aircraft has been completely inspected. Besides the AFM/POH preflight
assessment, the pilot should also develop awareness for potential areas of concern, such as signs of deterioration or distortion of the
structure, whether metal or composite, as well as loose or missing rivets or screws.
In addition to items specified in the AFM/POH for inspection, the pilot should have an awareness for critical areas, such as spar lines,
wing, horizontal, and vertical attach points including wing struts and landing gear attachment areas. The airplane skin should be
inspected in these areas as load-related stresses are concentrated along spar lines and attach points. Spar lines are lateral rivet lines
that extend across the wing, horizontal stabilizer, or vertical stabilizer. Pilots should pay close attention to spar lines looking for
distortion, ripples, bubbles, dents, creases, or waves as any structural deformity may be an indication of internal damage or failure.
Inspect around rivet heads looking for cracked paint or a black-oxide film that forms when a rivet works free in its hole. [Figure 2-7]
Figure 2-7. Example of rivet heads where black oxide film has formed due to the rivet becoming loose in its hole.
Additional areas that should be scrutinized are the leading edges of the wing, horizontal stabilizer, and vertical stabilizer. These areas
may have been impact-damaged by rocks, ice, birds, and/or hangar rash incidents. Certain dents and dings may render the structure
unairworthy. Some leading edge surfaces have aerodynamic devices, such as stall fences, slots, or vortex generators, and deicing
equipment, such as weeping wings and boots. If these items exist on the airplane, the pilot should know their proper condition so that
an adequate preflight inspection may occur.
On metal airplanes, wingtips, fairings, and non-structural covers may be fabricated out of thin fiberglass or plastic. These items are
frequently affected by cracks radiating from screw holes or concentrated radii. Often, if any of these items are cracked, it is practice
to “stop-drill” the crack to prevent crack progression. [Figure 2-8] Extra care should be exercised to ensure that these devices are in
good condition without cracks that may render them unairworthy. Cracks that have continued beyond a stop-drilled location or
any new adjacent cracks that have formed may lead to in-flight failure.
Figure 2-8. Cracks radiating from screw holes that have been stop-drilled to prevent crack progression.
Inspecting composite airplanes can be more challenging as the airplanes generally have no rivets or screws to aid the pilot i n
identifying spar lines and wing attach points. However, delamination of spar to skin or other structural problems may be identified by
bubbles, fine hair-line cracks, or changes in sound when gently tapping on the structure with a fingertip. Anything out of place should
be addressed by discussing the issue with a properly rated aircraft mechanic.
Fuel and Oil
While there are various formulations of aviation gasoline (AVGAS), only three grades are conventional: 80/87, 100LL, and 100/130.
100LL is the most widely available in the United States. AVGAS is dyed with a faint color for grade identification: 80/87 is dyed red;
100LL is dyed blue; and 100/130 is dyed green. All AVGAS grades have a familiar gasoline scent and texture. 100LL with its blue
dye is sometimes difficult to identify unless a fuel sample is held up against a white background in reasonable white lighting.
Aircraft piston engines certificated for grade 80/87 run satisfactorily on 100LL if approved as an alternate. The reverse is not true.
Fuel of a lower grade should never be substituted for a required higher grade. Detonation will severely damage the engine in a very
short period of time. Detonation, as the name suggests, is an explosion of the fuel-air mixture inside the cylinder. During detonation,
the fuel/air charge (or pockets within the charge) explodes rather than burns smoothly. Because of this explosion, the charge exerts a
much higher force on the piston and cylinder, leading to increased noise, vibration, and cylinder head temperatures. The violence of
detonation also causes a reduction in power. Mild detonation may increase engine wear, though some engines can operate with mild
detonation regularly. However, severe detonation can cause engine failure in minutes. [Figure 2- 9] Because of the noise that it
makes, detonation is "engine knock" or "pinging" in cars.
When approved for the specific airplane to be flown, automobile gasoline is sometimes used as a substitute fuel in certain airplanes.
Its use is acceptable only when the particular airplane has been issued a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) to both the airframe
and engine.
Jet fuel is a kerosene-based fuel for turbine engines and a new generation of diesel-powered airplanes. Jet fuel has a
stubborn, distinctive, non-gasoline odor and is oily to the touch. Jet fuel is clear or straw-colored, although it may appear dyed when
mixed with AVGAS. Jet fuel has disastrous consequences when introduced into AVGAS-burning reciprocating airplane engines. A
reciprocating engine operating on jet fuel may start, run, and power the airplane long enough for the airplane to become airborne,
only to have the engine fail catastrophically after takeoff.
Figure 2-9. An aircraft piston showing damage that occurred in just minutes as a result of detonation and overheating.
Jet fuel refueling trucks and dispensing equipment are marked with JET-A placards in white characters on a black background.
Because of the dire consequences associated with misfueling, fuel nozzles are specific to the type of fuel. AVGAS fuel filler nozzles
are straight with a constant diameter. [Figure 2-10] However, jet fuel filler nozzles are flared at the end to prevent insertion into
AVGAS fuel tanks. [Figure 2-11]
Figure 2-10. An AVGAS fuel filler nozzle is straight with a constant diameter.