Spin Awareness
A spin is an aggravated stall condition that may result after a stall occurs. Mishandling of yaw control during a stall increases the
likelihood of a spin entry. A spin results in the airplane following a downward corkscrew path. During a spin, the airplane rotates
around its vertical axis affected by different lift and drag forces on each wing, and the airplane descends due to gravity, rolling,
yawing, and pitching in a spiral path. [Figure 5-15] There are different types of spins. The spin type or types that occur in a particular
airplane may be by airplane design, loading, control inputs, and density altitude. In all spins at least one of the wings is stalled. Refer
to the airplane POH for spin recovery techniques appropriate to the make and model being flown. Techniques in the POH take
precedence over information in this section.
Figure 5-15. Spin—an aggravated stall and autorotation.
A spin occurs when at least one of the airplane’s wings exceed the critical AOA (stall) with a sideslip or yaw acting on the airplane at,
or beyond, the actual stall. An airplane will yaw not only because of incorrect rudder application but because of adverse yaw created
by aileron deflection; engine/prop effects, including p-factor, torque, spiraling slipstream, and gyroscopic precession; and wind shear,
including wake turbulence. If the yaw had been created by the pilot because of incorrect rudder use, the pilot may not be aware that a
critical AOA has been exceeded until the airplane yaws out of control toward the lowering wing. A stall that occurs while the airplane
is in a slipping or skidding turn can result in a spin entry and rotation in the direction of rudder application, regardless of which
wingtip is raised. If the pilot does not immediately initiate stall recovery, the airplane may enter a spin.
Maintaining directional control and not allowing the nose to yaw before stall recovery is initiated is key to averting a spin. Th e pilot
should apply the correct amount of rudder to keep the nose from yawing and the wings from banking.
Modern airplanes tend to be more reluctant to spin compared to older designs, however it is not impossible for them to spin.
Mishandling the controls in turns, stalls, and uncoordinated slow flight can put even the most reluctant airplanes into an accidental
spin. Proficiency in avoiding conditions that could lead to an accidental stall/spin situation, and in promptly taking the correct actions
to recover to normal flight, is essential. An airplane needs to be stalled and yawed in order to enter a spin; therefore, continued
practice in stall recognition and recovery helps the pilot develop a more instinctive and prompt reaction in recognizing an
approaching spin. Upon recognition of a spin or approaching spin, the pilot should immediately execute spin recovery procedures.
Spin Procedures
The first rule for spin demonstration is to ensure that the airplane is approved for spins. Please note that this discussion addresses
generic spin procedures; it does not cover special spin procedures or techniques required for a particular airplane. Safety dictates
careful review of the AFM/POH and regulations before attempting spins in any airplane. The review should include the followin g
items:
⦁ The airplane’s AFM/POH limitations section, placards, or type certification data to determine if the
airplane is approved for spins
⦁ Weight and balance limitations
⦁ Recommended entry and recovery procedures
⦁ The current 14 CFR part 91 parachute requirements
Also essential is a thorough airplane preflight inspection, with special emphasis on excess or loose items that may affect the weight,
CG, and controllability of the airplane. It is also important to ensure that the airplane is within any CG limitations as determined by
the manufacturer. Slack or loose control cables (particularly rudder and elevator) could prevent full anti-spin control deflections and
delay or preclude recovery in some airplanes.
Prior to any intentional spin, clear the flight area above and below the airplane for other traffic. This task may occur while slowing the
airplane for the spin entry. In addition, all spins should begin at an altitude high enough to complete recovery at or above 1,500 feet
AGL. Note that the first turn in a spin results in an altitude loss of approximately 1,000 feet, while each subsequent turn loses about
half that amount.
It may be appropriate to introduce spin training by first practicing both power-on and power-off stalls in a clean configuration. This
practice helps familiarize the pilot with the airplane’s specific stall and recovery characteristics. In all phases of traini ng, the
pilot should take care with handling of the power (throttle), and apply carburetor heat, if equipped, according to the
manufacturer’s recommendations
There are four phases of a spin: entry, incipient, developed, and recovery. [Figure 5-16]
Figure 5-16. Spin Entry and Recovery.
Entry Phase
In the entry phase, the pilot intentionally or accidentally provides the necessary elements for the spin. The entry procedure for
demonstrating a spin is similar to a power-off stall. During the entry, the pilot should slowly reduce power to idle, while
simultaneously raising the nose to a pitch attitude that ensures a stall. As the airplane approaches a stall, the pilot smoothly applies
full rudder in the direction of the desired spin rotation while applying full back (up) elevator to the limit of travel. Unless AFM/POH
specifies otherwise, ailerons are maintained in the neutral position during the spin procedure.
Incipient Phase
The incipient phase occurs from the time the airplane stalls and starts rotating until the spin has fully developed. This phase may take
two to four turns for most airplanes. In this phase, the aerodynamic and inertial forces have not achieved a balance. As the incipient
phase develops, the indicated airspeed will generally stabilize at a low and constant airspeed and the symbolic airplane of the turn
indicator should indicate the direction of the spin. The pilot should not use the slip/skid ball (inclinometer) to determine spin
direction. The location of the instrument in the airplane determines how the ball will move rather than the direction of the spin. For
example, the ball mounted on the left side of the airplane will always move to the left, even in spin with rotation to the right.
The pilot should initiate incipient spin recovery procedures prior to completing 360° of rotation. The pilot should apply ful l rudder
opposite the direction of rotation. The turn indicator shows a deflection in the direction of rotation if disoriented.
Incipient spins that are not allowed to develop into a steady-state spin are the most commonly used maneuver in initial spin
training and recovery techniques.
Developed Phase
The developed phase occurs when the airplane’s angular rotation rate, airspeed, and vertical speed are stabilized in a flight path that is
nearly vertical. In the developed phase, aerodynamic forces and inertial forces are in balance, and the airplane’s attitude, angles, and
self-sustaining motions about the vertical axis are constant or repetitive, or nearly so. The spin is in equilibrium. It is important
to note that some training airplanes will not enter into the developed phase but could transition unexpectedly from the incipient phase
into a spiral dive. In a spiral dive the airplane will not be in equilibrium but instead will be accelerating and G load can
rapidly increase as a result.
Recovery Phase
The recovery phase occurs when rotation ceases and the AOA of the wings is decreased below the critical AOA. This phase may last
for as little as a quarter turn or up to several turns depending upon the airplane and the type of spin. To recover, the pilot applies
control inputs to disrupt the spin equilibrium by stopping the rotation and unstalling the wing. To accomplish spin recovery, the pilot
should always follow the manufacturer’s recommended procedures. In the absence of the manufacturer’s recommended spin recovery
procedures and techniques, use the six-step spin recovery procedure in Figure 5-17. If the flaps and/or retractable landing gear are
extended prior to the spin, they should be retracted as soon as practicable after spin entry.
Figure 5-17. Spin recovery template.
The following discussion explains each of the six steps a pilot should follow for spin recovery:
1. Reduce the power (throttle) to idle. Power aggravates spin characteristics. It can result in a flatter spin
attitude and usually increases the rate of rotation.
2. Position the ailerons to neutral. Ailerons may have an adverse effect on spin recovery. Aileron control in
the direction of the spin may accelerate the rate of rotation, steepen the spin attitude and delay the recovery.
Aileron control opposite the direction of the spin may cause flattening of the spin attitude and delayed
recovery; or may even be responsible for causing an unrecoverable spin. The best procedure is to ensure
that the ailerons are neutral.
3. Apply and hold full opposite rudder against the rotation until the rotation stops. Rudder tends to be the
most important control for recovery in typical single-engine airplanes, and its application should be brisk
and full opposite to the direction of rotation. Avoid slow and overly cautious opposite rudder movement
during spin recovery, which can allow the airplane to spin indefinitely, even with anti-spin inputs. A brisk
and positive technique results in a more positive spin recovery.
4. Apply positive, brisk, and straight-forward elevator (forward of neutral). This step should be taken
immediately after full rudder application. Do not wait for the rotation to stop before performing this step.
The forceful movement of the elevator decreases the AOA and drives the airplane toward unstalled flight.
In some cases, full forward elevator may be required for recovery. Hold the controls firmly in these
positions until the spinning stops. (Note: If the airspeed is increasing, the airplane is no longer in a spin. In
a spin, the airplane is stalled, and the indicated airspeed should therefore be relatively low and constant and
should not be accelerating.)
5. Neutralize the rudder after spin rotation stops. Failure to neutralize the rudder at this time, when airspeed is
increasing, causes a yawing or sideslipping effect.
6. Apply back elevator pressure to return to level flight and adjust power as appropriate. Be careful not to
apply excessive back elevator pressure after the rotation stops and the rudder has been neutralized.
Excessive back elevator pressure can cause a secondary stall and may result in another spin. Avoid
exceeding the G-load limits and airspeed limitations during the pull out.
Again, it is important to remember that the spin recovery procedures and techniques described above are recommended for use only
in the absence of the manufacturer’s procedures. The pilot must always be familiar with the manufacturer’s procedures for spin
recovery.
Intentional Spins
If the manufacturer does not specifically approve an aircraft for spins, intentional spins are not authorized by the CFRs or suggested
by this handbook. The official sources for determining whether the spin maneuver is approved are:
⦁ Type Certificate Data Sheets or the aircraft specifications
⦁ The limitation section of the FAA-approved AFM/ POH regarding and limiting gross weight, CG
range, or amount of fuel
⦁ On a placard located in clear view of the pilot in the airplane (e.g., “NO ACROBATIC
MANEUVERS INCLUDING SPINS APPROVED”)
In airplanes placarded against spins, there is no assurance that recovery from a fully-developed spin is possible. Unfortunately,
accident records show occurrences in which pilots intentionally ignored spin restrictions. Despite the installation of placards
prohibiting intentional spins in these airplanes, some pilots and even some flight instructors attempt to justify the maneuver,
rationalizing that the spin restriction results from a “technicality” in the airworthiness standards. They believe that if the airplane was
spin tested during its certification process, no problem should result from demonstrating or practicing spins.
Such pilots overlook the fact that certification of normal category single-engine airplanes that occurred in accordance with 14 CFR
part 23, section 23.221(a) (which still applies to aircraft certified under that regulation) only required the airplane to recover from a
one-turn spin or a three-second spin, whichever takes longer, in not more than one additional turn after initiation of the first control
action for recover, or demonstrate compliance with the optional spin resistant requirements of that section. In other words, many of
these airplanes were never required to recover from a fully developed spin. 14 CFR part 23, section 23.2150 states the current
certification requirements pertaining to spin characteristics for airplanes certified under that regulation going forward. In all airplanes
placarded against spins, there is absolutely no assurance that recovery from a fully developed spin is possible under any
circumstances. The pilot of an airplane placarded against intentional spins should assume that the airplane could become
uncontrollable in a spin.
Weight and Balance Requirement Related to Spins
In airplanes that are approved for spins, compliance with weight and balance requirements is important for safe performance and
recovery from the spin maneuver. Pilots should know that even minor weight or balance changes can affect the airplane’s spin
recovery characteristics. Such changes can either degrade or enhance the spin maneuver and/or recovery characteristics. For example,
th
e addition of weight in the aft baggage compartment, or additional fuel, may still permit the airplane to be operated within CG, but
could seriously affect the spin and recovery characteristics. An airplane that may be difficult to spin intentionally in the utility
category (restricted aft CG and reduced weight) could have less resistance to spin entry in the normal category (less restricted aft CG
and increased weight). This situation arises from the airplane’s ability to generate a higher AOA. An airplane that is approved for
spins in the utility category but loaded in accordance with the normal category may not recover from a spin that is allowed to progress
beyond one turn.
Common Errors
Common errors in the performance of intentional spins are:
1. Failure to apply full rudder pressure (to the stops) in the desired spin direction during spin entry
2. Failure to apply and maintain full up-elevator pressure during spin entry, resulting in a spiral
3. Failure to achieve a fully-stalled condition prior to spin entry
4. Failure to apply full rudder (to the stops) briskly against the spin during recovery
5. Failure to apply sufficient forward-elevator during recovery
6. Waiting for rotation to stop before applying forward-elevator
7. Failure to neutralize the rudder after rotation stops, possibly resulting in a secondary spin
8. Slow and overly cautious control movements during recovery
9. Excessive back-elevator pressure after rotation stops, possibly resulting in secondary stall
10. Insufficient back-elevator pressure during recovery resulting in excessive airspeed
Spiral Dive
A spiral dive, a nose-low upset, is a descending turn during which airspeed and G-load can increase rapidly and often results from a
botched turn. In a spiral dive, the airplane is flying very tight circles, in a nearly vertical attitude and will be accelerating because it is
no longer stalled. Pilots typically get into a spiral dive during an inadvertent IMC encounter, most often when the pilot relies on
kinesthetic sensations rather than on the flight instruments. A pilot distracted by other sensations can easily enter a slightly nose-low,
wing-low, descending turn and, at least initially, fail to recognize this error. Especially in IMC, it may be only the sound of increasing
speed that makes the pilot aware of the rapidly developing situation. Upon recognizing the steep nose-down attitude and steep bank,
the startled pilot may react by pulling back rapidly on the yoke while simultaneously rolling to wings-level. This response can create
aerodynamic loads capable of causing airframe structural damage and/or failure.
The following discussion explains each of the five steps a pilot should use to recover from a spiral dive:
1. Reduce power (throttle) to idle. Immediately reduce power to idle to slow the rate of acceleration.
2. Apply some forward-elevator. Prior to rolling the wings level, it is important to unload the G-load on the
airplane (“unload the wing”). This is accomplished by applying some forward-elevator pressure to return to
about +1G. Apply just enough forward-elevator to ensure that you are not aggravating the spiral with aft-
elevator. While generally a small input, this push has several benefits prior to rolling the wings level in the
next step – the push reduces the AOA, reduces the G-load, and slows the turn rate while increasing the turn
radius, and preventing a rolling pullout. The design limit of the airplane is exceeded more easily during a
rolling pullout, so failure to reduce the G-load prior to rolling the wings level could result in structural
damage or failure.
3. Roll to wings level using coordinated aileron and rudder inputs. Even though the airplane is in a nose-low
attitude, continue the roll until the wings are completely level again before performing step four.
4. Gently raise the nose to level flight. It is possible that the airplane in a spiral dive might be at or even
beyond VNE (never exceed speed) speed. Therefore, control inputs are made slowly and gently at this point
to prevent structural failure. Raise the nose to a climb attitude only after speed decreases to safe levels.
5. Increase power to climb power. Once the airspeed has stabilized to VY, apply climb power and climb back
to a safe altitude.
In general, spiral dive recovery procedures are summarized in Figure 5-18.
Figure 5-18. Spiral dive recovery template.
Common Errors
Common errors in the recovery from spiral dives are:
1. Failure to reduce power first
2. Mistakenly adding power
3. Attempting to pull out of dive without rolling wings level
4. Simultaneously pulling out of dive while rolling wings level
5. Not unloading the Gs prior to rolling level
6. Not adding power once climb is established
UPRT Summary
A significant point to note is that UPRT skills are both complex and perishable. Repetition is needed to establish the correct mental
models, and recurrent practice/training is necessary as well. The context in which UPRT procedures are introduced and implemented
is also an important consideration. The pilot should clearly understand, for example, whether a particular procedure has broa d
applicability, or is type-specific. To attain the highest levels of learning possible, the best approach starts with the broadest form of a
given procedure, then narrows it down to type-specific requirements.
Chapter Summary
A pilot’s most fundamental and important responsibility is to maintain aircraft control. Initial flight training thus provides skills to
operate an airplane in a safe manner, generally within normal “expected” environments, with the addition of some instruction in upset
and stall situations.
This chapter discussed the elements of basic airplane control, with emphasis on AOA. It offered a discussion of circumstances and
scenarios that can lead to LOC-I, including stalls and airplane upsets. It discussed the importance of developing proficiency in slow
flight, stalls, and stall recoveries, spin awareness and recovery, upset prevention and recovery, and spiral dive recovery.
Pilots need to understand that primary training cannot cover all possible contingencies that an airplane or pilot may encounter. They
should seek recurrent/additional training for their normal areas of operation and seek appropriate training that develops their
aeronautical skill set beyond the requirements for initial certification.
For additional considerations on performing some of these maneuvers in multiengine airplanes and turbojet-powered airplanes, refer
to Chapters 12 and 15, respectively.
Additional advisory circular (AC) guidance is available at www.faa.gov:
1. AC 61-67 (as revised), Stall and Spin Awareness Training;
2. AC 120-109 (as revised), Stall Prevention and Recovery Training; and
3. AC 120-111 (as revised), Upset Prevention and Recovery Training.