In order for a learner to self-examine behaviors during flight, the learner should be taught the potential risks caused from hazardous
attitudes and, more importantly, the antidote for each. [Figure 1-12] For example, if a learner has an easy time with flight training
and seems to understand things very quickly, there may be a potential for that learner to develop a hazardous attitude regarding their
ability.
A successful flight instructor points out the potential for the behavior and teaches the learner the antidote for that attitude.
Hazardous
attitudes need to be noticed immediately and corrected with the proper antidote to minimize the potential for any flight
hazard.
Figure 1-12. Learners in training can be asked to identify hazardous attitudes and the corresponding antidotes when presented with
flight scenarios.
Stress Management
Learning how to recognize and cope with stress is another effective ADM tool. Stress is the body’s response to demands placed upon
it. These demands can be either pleasant or unpleasant in nature. The causes of stress for a pilot can range from unexpected weather
or mechanical problems while in flight to personal issues unrelated to flying. Stress is an inevitable and necessary part of life; it adds
motivation and heightens an individual’s response to meet any challenge.
Everyone is stressed to some degree all the time. A certain amount of stress is good since it keeps a person alert and prevents
complacency. However, the effects of stress are cumulative and, if not coped with adequately, they eventually add up to an intolerable
burden. Performance generally increases with the onset of stress, peaks, and then begins to fall off rapidly as stress levels exceed a
person’s ability to cope. The ability to make effective decisions during flight can be impaired by stress. Factors, referred to as
stressors, can increase a pilot’s risk of error in the flight deck. [Figure 1-13]
Figure 1-13. Three types of stressors that can affect pilot performance.
One way of exploring the subject of stress with a learner is to recognize when stress is affecting performance. If a learner seems
distracted, or has a particularly difficult time accomplishing the tasks of the lesson, the instructor can query the learner. Was the
learner uncomfortable or tired during the flight? Is there some stress in another aspect of the learner’s life that may be causing a
distraction? This may prompt the learner to evaluate how these factors affect performance and judgment. The instructor should also
try to determine if there are aspects of pilot training that are causing excessive amounts of stress for the learner. For example, if the
learner consistently makes a decision not to fly, even though weather briefings indicate favorable conditions, it may be due to
apprehension regarding the lesson content. Stalls, landings, or an impending solo flight may cause concern. By explaining a specific
maneuver in greater detail or offering some additional encouragement, the instructor may be able to alleviate some of the lea rner’s
stress.
To help learners manage the accumulation of life stresses and prevent stress overload, instructors can recommend several techniques.
For example, including relaxation time in a busy schedule and maintaining a program of physical fitness can help reduce stress levels.
Learning to manage time more effectively can help pilots avoid heavy pressures imposed by getting behind schedule and not meeting
deadlines. While these pressures may exist in the workplace, learners may also experience the same type of stress regarding their
flight training schedule. Instructors can advise learners to self-assess to determine their capabilities and limitations and then set
realistic goals. In addition, avoiding stressful situations and encounters can help pilots cope with stress.
Use of Resources
To make informed decisions during flight operations, learners should be familiar with the resources found both inside and outside the
flight deck. Since useful tools and sources of information may not always be readily apparent, learning to recognize these resources is
an essential part of ADM training. Resources should not only be identified, but learners should also develop the skills to evaluate
whether they have the time to use a particular resource and the impact that its use would have upon the safety of flight. For example,
the assistance of ATC may be very useful if a pilot is lost. However, in an emergency situation when action needs be taken quickly,
time may not be available to contact ATC immediately. During training, flight instructors can routinely point out resources to
learners.
Internal Resources
Internal resources are found in the flight deck during flight. However, some of the most valuable internal resources include ingenuity,
knowledge, and skill. Pilots can enhance flight deck resources by improving their own capabilities. This can be accomplished
by pursuing additional training and by frequently reviewing flight information publications including the Aeronautical
Information Manual (AIM), instruction manuals for on board equipment, and safety journals.
With the advent of advanced avionics with glass displays, GPS, and autopilot, flying has become more complex. Avionics and
automation systems are valuable resources, and flight instructors should teach learners how to use this equipment properly. If
learners do not fully understand how to use the equipment, or if they rely on it so much that they become complacent, it can become a
detriment to safe flight.
Checklists are essential flight deck resources for verifying that the aircraft instruments and systems are checked, set, and operating
properly, as well as ensuring that the proper procedures are performed if there is a system malfunction or inflight emergency .
Learners reluctant to use checklists can be reminded that pilots at all levels of experience refer to checklists, and that the more
advanced the aircraft is, the more crucial checklists become. With the advent of electronic checklists, it has become easier to develop
and maintain personal checklists from the manufacturer’s checklist with additions for specific aircraft and operations.
In addition, the AFM/POH, which is required to be carried onboard the aircraft, is essential for accurate flight planning and for
resolving inflight equipment malfunctions. Other valuable flight deck resources include current aeronautical charts and publications,
such as the Chart Supplement (CS).
It should be pointed out to learners that passengers can also be a valuable resource. Passengers can help watch for traffic and may be
able to provide information in an irregular situation, especially if they are familiar with flying. A strange smell or sound may alert a
passenger to a potential problem. The PIC should brief passengers before the flight to make sure that they are comfortable voicing
any concerns.
External Resources
Possibly the greatest external resources during flight are air traffic controllers. ATC can help decrease pilot workload by providing
traffic advisories, radar vectors, and assistance in emergency situations. When learners use ATC during training, they develop the
confidence to ask controllers to clarify instructions and to use ATC as a resource for assistance in unusual circumstances or
emergencies. Fight Service specialists can provide updates on weather, answer questions about airport conditions, and may offer
direction-finding assistance on frequencies used for flight plan communications. These services can be invaluable in enabling pilots to
make informed inflight decisions.
Throughout training, learners can be asked to identify internal and external resources, which can be used in a variety of flight
situations. For example, if a discrepancy is found during preflight, what resources can be used to determine its significance? In this
case, the learner’s knowledge of the aircraft, the POH, an instructor or other experienced pilot, or an AMT can be a resource which
may help define the problem. During cross-country training, learners may be asked to consider the following situation. On a cross-
country flight, you become disoriented. Although you are familiar with the area, you do not recognize any landmarks, and fuel is
running low. What resources do you have to assist you? Learners should be able to identify their own skills and
knowledge, aeronautical charts, ATC, Flight Service, and navigation equipment as some of the resources that can be used in this
situation.
Workload Management
Effective workload management ensures that essential operations are accomplished by planning, prioritizing, and sequencing tasks to
avoid work overload. As experience is gained, a pilot learns to recognize future workload requirements and can prepare for hig h
workload periods during times of low workload. Instructors can teach this skill by prompting their learners to prepare for a high
workload. For example, when en route, the learner can be asked to explain the actions that need to be taken during the approach to the
airport. The learner should be able to describe the procedures for traffic pattern entry and landing preparation. Reviewing the
appropriate chart and setting radio frequencies well in advance of need helps reduce workload as the flight nears the airport. In
addition, the learner should listen to the Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS), Automated Surface Observing
Systems (ASOS), or Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS), if available, and then monitor the tower frequency or Common
Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) to get a good idea of what traffic conditions to expect. Checklists should be performed well in
advance so there is time to focus on traffic and ATC instructions. These procedures are especially important prior to entering a high-
density traffic area, such as Class B airspace.
To manage workload, items should be prioritized. This concept should be emphasized to learners and reinforced when training
procedures are performed. For example, during a go-around, adding power, gaining airspeed, and properly configuring the aircraft are
priorities. Informing the tower of the balked landing should be accomplished only after these tasks are completed. learners
should understand that priorities change as the situation changes. If fuel quantity is lower than expected on a cross-country flight, the
priority can shift from making a scheduled arrival time at the destination, to locating a nearby airport to refuel. In an emergency
situation, the first priority is to fly the aircraft and maintain a safe airspeed.
Another important part of managing workload is recognizing a work overload situation. The first effect of high workload is that the
pilot begins to work faster. As workload increases, attention cannot be devoted to several tasks at one time, and the pilot may begin to
focus on one item. When the pilot becomes task saturated, there is no awareness of inputs from various sources; decisions may be
made on incomplete information, and the possibility of error increases. [Figure 1-14]
During a lesson, workload can be gradually increased as the instructor monitors the learner’s management of tasks. The instru ctor
should ensure that the learner has the ability to recognize a work overload situation. When becoming overloaded, the learner should
stop, think, slow down, and prioritize. It is important that the learner understand options that may be available to decrease workload.
For example, locating an item on a chart or setting a radio frequency may be delegated to another pilot or passenger, an autopilot (if
available) may be used, or ATC may be enlisted to provide assistance.
Figure 1-14. Accidents often occur when flying task requirements exceed pilot capabilities. The difference between these two factors is
called the margin of safety. Note that in this idealized example, the margin of safety is minimal during the approach and landing. At
this point, an emergency or distraction could overtax pilot capabilities, causing an accident.
Teaching Decision-Making Skills
When instructor pilots discuss system safety, they generally worry about the loss of traditional stick-and-rudder skills. The fear is that
emphasis on items such as risk management, ADM, SRM, and situational awareness detracts from the training necessary in
developing safe pilots.
It is important to understand that system safety flight training occurs in three phases. First, there are the traditional stick and rudder
maneuvers. In order to apply the critical thinking skills that are to follow, pilots should develop a high degree of confidence in their
ability to fly the aircraft. Next, the tenets of system safety are introduced into the training environment as learners begin to understand
how best to identify hazards, manage risk, and use all available resources to make each flight as safe as possible. This can be
accomplished through scenarios that emphasize the skill sets being taught. Finally, the learner may be introduced to more complex
scenarios that focus on several safety- of-flight issues. Thus, scenarios should start out rather simply, then progress in complexity and
intensity as the learner becomes able to handle the increased workload.
A traditional stick-and-rudder maneuver such as short field landings can be used to illustrate how ADM and risk management can be
incorporated into instruction. In phase l the initial focus is on developing the stick-and-rudder skills required to execute this operation
safely. These include power and airspeed management, aircraft configuration, placement in the pattern, wind correction, determining
the proper aim point and sight picture, etc. By emphasizing these points through repetition and practice, a learner eventually acquires
the skills needed to execute a short field landing.
Phase II introduces the many factors that come into play when performing a short field landing, which include runway conditions, no-
flap landings, airport obstructions, and rejected landings. The introduction of such items need not increase training times. In fact, all
of the hazards or considerations referenced in the short field landing lesson plan may be discussed in detail during the ground portion
of the instructional program. For example, if training has been conducted at an airport that enjoys an obstruction-free 6,000-foot
runway, consider the implications of operating the same aircraft out of a 1,800-foot strip with an obstruction off the departure end.
Add to that additional considerations, such as operating the aircraft at close to its maximum gross weight under conditions of high
density altitude, and now a single training scenario has several layers of complexity. The ensuing discussion proves a valuable
training exercise, and it comes with little additional ground and no added flight training.
Finally, phase III takes the previously discussed hazards, risks, and considerations, and incorporates them into a complex scenario.
This forces a learner to consider not only a specific lesson item (in this case, short-field landings), but also requires that it be viewed
in the greater context of the overall flight. For example, on a cross-country flight, the learner is presented with a realistic distraction,
perhaps the illness of a passenger. This forces a diversion to an alternate for which the learner has not planned. The new destination
airport has two runways, the longest of which is closed due to construction. The remaining runway is short, but while less than ideal,
should prove suitable for landing. However, upon entering the pattern, the learner finds the electrically driven flaps do not extend.
The learner should now consider whether to press on and attempt the landing or proceed to a secondary alternate.
If he or she decides to go forward and attempt the landing, this proves an excellent time to test the requisite stick and rudder skills. If
the learner decides to proceed to a second alternate, this opens new training opportunities. Proceeding further tests cross-country
skills, such as navigation, communication, management of a passenger in distress, as well as the other tasks associated with simply
flying the aircraft. The outlined methodology simply takes a series of seemingly unrelated tasks and scripts them into a training
exercise requiring both mechanical and cognitive skills to complete it successfully.
Scenario-based training (SBT) helps the flight instructor effectively teach ADM and risk management. The what, why, and how of
SBT will be discussed extensively throughout this handbook. In teaching ADM, it is important to remember the learning objective is
for the learner to exercise sound judgment and make good decisions. Thus, the flight instructor should be ready to turn the
responsibility for planning and execution of the flight over to the learner as soon as possible. Although the flight instructor continues
to demonstrate and instruct skill maneuvers, when the learner begins to make decisions, the flight instructor should revert to the role
of mentor and/or learning facilitator.
The flight instructor is an integral part of the systems approach to training and is crucial to the implementation of an SBT program,
which underlies the teaching of ADM. Remember, for SBT instruction to be effective, it is vital the flight instructor and learner
establish the following information:
⦁ Scenario destination(s)
⦁ Desired learning outcome(s)
⦁ Desired level of learner performance
⦁ Possible inflight scenario changes
It is also important for the flight instructor to remember that a good scenario:
⦁ Is not a test.
⦁ Will not have a single correct answer.
⦁ Does not offer an obvious answer.
⦁ Engages all three learning domains.
⦁ Is interactive.
⦁ Should not promote errors.
⦁ Should promote situational awareness and opportunities for decision-making.
⦁ Requires time-pressured decisions.
The flight instructor should make the situation as realistic as possible. This means the learner knows where he or she is going and
what transpires on the flight. While the actual flight may deviate from the original plan, it allows the learner to be placed in a realistic
scenario. The learner should plan the flight to include:
⦁ Route
⦁ Destination(s)
⦁ Weather
⦁ NOTAMS
⦁ Possible emergency procedures
Since the scenarios may have several good outcomes and a few poor ones, the flight instructor should understand in advance which
outcomes are positive and/or negative and give the learner the freedom to make both good and poor decisions. This does not mean
that the learner should be allowed to make an unsafe decision or commit an unsafe act. However, it does allow the learners to make
decisions that fit their experience level and result in positive outcomes.
Teaching decision-making skills has become an integral part of flight training. The word “decision” is used several times in each ACS
and applicants are judged on their ability to make a decision as well as their ability to perform a task. Thus, it is important for flight
instructors to remember that decision-making is a component of the ACS.
Assessing SRM Skills
A learner’s performance is often assessed only on a technical level. The instructor determines whether maneuvers are technically
accurate and that procedures are performed in the right order. In SRM assessment, instructors should learn to assess on a different
level. How did the learner arrive at a particular decision? What resources were used? Was risk assessed accurately when a go/ no-go
decision was made? Did the learner maintain situational awareness in the traffic pattern? Was workload managed effectively during a
cross-country flight? How does the learner handle stress and fatigue?
Instructors should continually evaluate learner decision-making ability and offer suggestions for improvement. It is not always
necessary to present complex situations, which require detailed analysis. By allowing learners to make decisions about typical issues
that arise throughout the course of training, such as their fitness to fly, weather conditions, and equipment problems, instructors can
address effective decision-making and allow learners to develop judgment skills. For example, when a discrepancy is found during
preflight inspection, the learner should be allowed to initially determine the action to be taken. Then the effectiveness of the learner’s
choice and other options that may be available can be discussed.
Opportunities for improving decision-making abilities occur often during training. If the tower offers the learner a runway that
requires landing with a tailwind in order to expedite traffic, the learner can be directed to assess the risks involved and asked to
present alternative actions to be taken. Perhaps the most frequent choice that has to be made during flight training is the go/no-go
decision based on weather. While the final choice to fly lies with the instructor, learners can be asked to assess the weather prior to
each flight and make a go/no-go determination.
In addition, instructors should utilize SBT to create lessons that are specifically designed to test whether learners are applying SRM
skills. Planning a flight lesson in which the learner is presented with simulated emergencies, a heavy workload, or other operational
problems can be valuable in assessing the learner’s judgment and decision-making skills. During the flight, learner performance can
be evaluated for workload and/or stress management.
SRM grades are based on these four components:
⦁ Explain—the learner can verbally identify, describe, and understand the risks inherent in the flight scenario.
The learner needs to be prompted to identify risks and make decisions.
⦁ Practice—the learner is able to identify, understand, and apply SRM principles to the actual flight situation.
Coaching, instruction, and/or assistance from the flight instructor quickly corrects minor deviations and
errors identified by the flight instructor. The learner is an active decision maker.
⦁ Manage/Decide—the learner can correctly gather the most important data available both within and outside
the flight deck, identify possible courses of action, evaluate the risk inherent in each course of action, and
make the appropriate decision. Instructor intervention is not required for the safe completion of the flight.
⦁ Not Observed—any event not accomplished or required.
Postflight, collaborative assessment or learner centered grading (LCG) also discussed in Chapter 6, Assessment, is a vital component
of assessing a learner’s SRM skills. As a reminder, collaborative assessment includes two parts: learner self-assessment and a detailed
assessment by the flight instructor. The purpose of the self-assessment is to stimulate growth in the learner’s thought processes and, in
turn, behaviors. The self-assessment is followed by an in-depth discussion between the flight instructor and the learner,
which compares the flight instructor’s assessment to the learner’s self-assessment.
An important element of SRM skills assessment is that the flight instructor provides a clear picture of the progress the learner is
making during the training. Grading should also be progressive. During each flight, the learner should achieve a new level of
learning. For flight one, the automation management area might be a “describe” item. By flight three, it would be a “practice”
item, and by flight five, a “manage -decide” item.
Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced aviation instructors to the underlying concepts of safety risk management, which the FAA is integrating into
all levels of the aviation community.