Belonging
When individuals are physically comfortable and do not feel threatened, they seek to satisfy their social needs of belonging. Maslow
states that people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation. This involves both giving and receiving love, affection, and
the sense of belonging. For example, aviation learners are usually out of their normal surroundings during training, and their need for
association and belonging is more pronounced. Instructors should make every effort to help new learners feel at ease and to reinforce
their decision to pursue a career or hobby in aviation.
Esteem
When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the need for esteem can become dominant. Humans have a need for a stable, firmly
based, high level of self- respect and respect from others. Esteem is about feeling good about one’s self. Humans get esteem in two
ways: internally or externally. Internally, a person judges himself or herself worthy by personally defined standards. High self-esteem
results in self-confidence, independence, achievement, competence, and knowledge.
Most people, however, seek external esteem through social approval and esteem from other people, judging themselves by what
others think of them. External self- esteem relates to one’s reputation, such as status, recognition, appreciation, and respect of
associates.
When esteem needs are satisfied, a person feels self-confident and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated,
the person feels inferior, weak, helpless, and worthless. Esteem needs not only have a strong influence on the instructor-learner
relationship, but also may be the main reason for a learner’s interest in aviation training.
Cognitive and Aesthetic
In later years, Maslow added cognitive (need to know and understand) and aesthetic (the emotional need of the artist) needs to the
pyramid. He realized humans have a deep need to understand what is going on around them. If a person understands what is going on,
he or she can either control the situation or make informed choices about what steps might be taken next. The brain even reinforces
this need by giving humans a rush of dopamine whenever something is learned, which accounts for that satisfying “eureka!” moment.
For example, a flight learner usually experiences a major “eureka!” moment upon completing the first solo flight.
Aesthetic needs connect directly with human emotions, which makes it a subtle factor in the domain of persuasion. When someon e
likes another person, a house, a painting, or a song, the reasons are not examined —he or she simply likes it. This need can factor into
the learner-instructor relationship. If an instructor does not “like” a learner, this subtle feeling may affect the instructor ’s ability to
teach.
Self-Actualization
When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for self-actualization activated. Maslow describes self-
actualization as a person’s need to be and do that which the person was “born to do.” To paraphrase an old Army recruiting slogan,
self-actualization is to “be all you can be.”
Self-actualized people are characterized by:
⦁ Being problem-focused.
⦁ Incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of life.
⦁ A concern about personal growth.
⦁ The ability to have peak experiences.
Helping a learner achieve his or her individual potential in aviation training offers the greatest challenge as well as reward to the
instructor.
Instructors should help learners satisfy their human needs in a manner that creates a healthy learning environment. In this type of
environment, learners experience fewer frustrations and, therefore, can devote more attention to their studies. Fulfillment of needs can
be a powerful motivation in complex learning situations.
Human Nature and Motivation
Human nature refers to the general psychological characteristics, feelings, and behavioral traits shared by all humans. Consider Jason,
who came to aviation because he wanted to participate more actively in another realm of his business. Derek needs to capitalize on
this motivation to keep Jason interested in the step- by-step procedures that need to be learned in order to fly safely. There is a gap
between Jason and his goal of earning a pilot certificate. It is Derek’s job to close the gap. The successful instructor channels learner
motivation and guides the learner toward the goal of obtaining aviation skills through education, experience, practice, and study.
The psychologist and Nobel Prize winner in Economics, Daniel Kahneman, summarized his findings of human behavior in his book
titled, Thinking, Fast and Slow . Simply, he outlines that two systems of thought constantly compete for control over our behaviors
that affect decision-making. The first system (fast) is the automatic reaction that individuals have developed through memory and
experience. The second system (slow) relies on logic and reasoning to draw conclusions for the actions one takes. [Figure 2-4]
Figure 2-4. Daniel Kahneman developed a two-system view of human behaviors that affect decision-making: System 1 (fast)
represents the automatic responses, while System 2 (slow) represents the more logical and deliberate considerations used for
decision-making.
According to Kahneman's research, System 1 is primarily based in emotion and the unconscious mind. These are automatic “gut
reactions” that require little thought or effort by the individual. For example, when presented with the simple math equation 2 + 2 = x,
the individual can easily solve the problem where x = 4. The response is instant and likely correct in this example. The inherent risk
in using this thought system is that, as Kahneman explains, we are inherently lazy. It is exhausting to put forth the effort required to
deliberately concentrate on a problem, especially one that appears to be so easy. This can lead to poor decision-making due to the
assumption that the task at hand is as simple as past, similar, experiences suggest it to be.
In contrast, individuals rely on System 2 less frequently as it requires conscious effort to calculate and reason through a problem, and
because of this System 2 is comparatively slower than System 1. While someone can easily solve the equation 2 + 2 = x, the average
person needs to pause and consider an answer if presented with a more difficult problem such as 48 × 76 = y. This system demands
considerable effort and self-control of the individual and as a result, it is tempting to revert to the relative ease of System 1. In fact,
once the immediate problem is solved, System 1 takes over again.
Understanding how these systems affect our decision-making can help instructors be more aware of learner pitfalls, such as assuming
a complex problem is a simple one, or assuming that because a recent task led to a solution that the same solution can be use d
correctly for a similar task.
Since it is human nature to be motivated, the responsibility for discovering how to realize the potential of the learner lies with the
instructor. How to mold a solid, healthy, productive relationship with a learner depends on the instructor’s knowledge of human
behavior and needs. Being able to recognize factors that inhibit the learning process also helps the instructor in this process.
Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms can be biological or psychological. The biological defense mechanism is a physiological response that protects
or preserves organisms. For example, when humans experience a danger or a threat, the “fight or flight” response kicks in. Adrenaline
and other chemicals are activated and physical symptoms such as rapid heart rate and increased blood pressure occur.
For example, when an anxious learner pilot reacts to impending and full stalls during practice, the anxiety that the learner pilot may
feel may resolve itself into a “fight or flight” response. There may be limited time to analyze the problem. Therefore, the l earner
needs the opportunity to experience and develop a comfort level that mitigates the anxiety.
The instructor needs to recognize the learner’s apprehension about performing the recovery techniques and help them gain the
necessary skill level to feel comfortable with the maneuver. In this case, the instructor could take the procedure apart and demonstrate
each stage of an impending or full stall. Allowing the learner to then practice the stages in various realistic scenarios should instill the
confidence needed to master the stall recovery.
Sigmund Freud introduced the psychological concept of the ego defense mechanism in 1894. The ego defense mechanism is an
unconscious mental process to protect oneself from anxiety, unpleasant emotions, or to provide a refuge from a situation with which
the individual cannot currently cope. For example, someone who blots out the memory of being physically assaulted is using a
defense mechanism. People use these defenses to prevent unacceptable ideas or impulses from entering the conscious mind. Defense
mechanisms soften feelings of failure, alleviate feelings of guilt, help an individual cope with reality, and protect one’s self-image.
[Figure 2-5]
When anxiety occurs, the mind tries to solve the problem or find an escape, but if these tactics do not work, defense mechanisms are
triggered. Defense mechanisms share two common properties:
⦁ They often appear unconsciously.
⦁ They tend to distort, transform, or otherwise falsify reality.
Because reality is distorted, perception changes, which allows for a lessening of anxiety, with a corresponding reduction in tension.
Repression and denial are two primary defense mechanisms.
Repression
Repression is the defense mechanism whereby a person places uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the unconscious
mind. Things a person is unable to cope with now are pushed away, to be dealt with at another time, or hopefully never because they
faded away on their own accord. The level of repression can vary from temporarily forgetting an uncomfortable thought to amnesia,
where the events that triggered the anxiety are deeply buried. Repressed memories do not disappear and may reappear in dreams or
slips of the tongue (“Freudian slips”). For example, a learner pilot may have a repressed fear of flying that inhibits his or her ability to
learn how to fly.
Denial
Denial is a refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening. It is the refusal to acknowledge what has happened, is
happening, or will happen. It is a form of repression through which stressful thoughts are banned from memory. Related to denial is
minimization. When a person minimizes something, he or she accepts what happened, but in a diluted form.
For example, the instructor finds a water bottle under the rudder pedal of an aircraft the student took on a solo flight and explains the
hazards of loose objects in the cabin. The learner, unwilling to accept the reality that his or her inattention could have caused an
aircraft accident, denies having been inattentive on previous day. Or, the learner minimizes the incident, accepting he or she left the
water bottle pointing out that nothing bad happened as a result of the action.
Figure 2-5. Several common defense mechanisms may apply to aviation learners.
Other defense mechanisms include but are not limited to the following:
Compensation
Compensation is a process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other areas.
Through compensation, learners often attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable quality by emphasizing a more
positive one. The “I’m not a fighter, I’m a lover” philosophy can be an example of compensation. Compensation involves substituting
success in a realm of life other than the realm in which the person suffers a weakness.
Projection
Through projection, an individual places his or her own unacceptable impulses onto someone else. A person relegates the blame for
personal shortcomings, mistakes, and transgressions to others or attributes personal motives, desires, characteristics, and impulses to
others. The learner pilot who fails a flight exam and says, “I failed because I had a poor examiner” believes the failure was not due to
a lack of personal skill or knowledge. This learner projects blame onto an “unfair” examiner.
Learners who believe their instruction is inadequate, or that their efforts are not conscientiously considered and evaluated, do not
learn well. In addition, their motivation suffers no matter how intent they are on learning to fly. Motivation also declines when a
learner believes the instructor is making unreasonable demands for performance and progress. [Figure 2-6]
Assignment of difficult, but possible, goals usually provides a challenge and promotes learning. In a typical flight lesson, reasonable
goals are listed in the lesson objectives and the desired levels of proficiency for the goals are included in statements that contain
completion standards.
Rationalization
Rationalization is a subconscious technique for justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable. When true rationalization
takes place, individuals sincerely believe in the plausible and acceptable excuses which seem real and justifiable. For example, a
learner mechanic performs poorly on a test. He or she may justify the poor grade by claiming there was not enough time to learn the
required information. The learner does not admit to failing to join the class study group or taking the computer quiz offered by the
instructor.
Reaction Formation
In reaction formation a person fakes a belief opposite to the true belief because the true belief causes anxiety. The person feels an
urge to do or say something and then actually does or says something that is the opposite of what he or she really wants. For example,
a learner may develop a who-cares-how-other-people-feel attitude to cover up feelings of loneliness and a hunger for acceptance.
Figure 2-6. The assignment of impossible or unreasonable goals discourages the learner, diminishes effort, and retards the learning
process.
Fantasy
Fantasy occurs when a learner engages in daydreams about how things should be rather than doing anything about how things are .
The learner uses his or her imagination to escape from reality into a fictitious world —a world of success or pleasure. However, if a
learner gets sufficient satisfaction from daydreaming, he or she may stop trying to achieve goals altogether. Perhaps the transitioning
pilot is having trouble mastering a more complex aircraft, which jeopardizes his or her dream of becoming an airline pilot. It becomes
easier to daydream about the career than to achieve the certification. Lost in the fantasy, the learner spends more time dreaming about
being a successful airline pilot than working toward the goal. When carried to extremes, the worlds of fantasy and reality can become
so confused that the dreamer cannot distinguish one from the other.
Displacement
This defense mechanism results in an unconscious shift of emotion, affect, or desire from the original object to a more acceptable,
less threatening substitute. Displacement avoids the risk associated with feeling unpleasant emotions and puts them somewhere other
than where they belong. For example, the avionics learner is angry with the instructor over a grade received but fears displaying the
anger could antagonize the instructor. The learner might choose to direct the anger towards a different object without riskin g
consequences related to the class.
Psychology textbooks or online references offer more in-depth information about defense mechanisms. While most defense
mechanisms fall within the realm of normal behavior and serve a useful purpose, in some cases they may be associated with mental
health problems. Defense mechanisms involve some degree of self-deception and distortion of reality. Thus, they alleviate the
symptoms, not the causes, and do not solve problems. Moreover, because defense mechanisms operate on an unconscious level, they
are not subject to normal conscious checks and balances. Once an individual realizes there is a conscious reliance on one of these
devices, behavior ceases to be an unconscious adjustment mechanism and becomes, instead, an ineffective way of satisfying a need.
It may be difficult for an instructor to identify excessive reliance on defense mechanisms by a learner, but a personal crisis or other
stressful event is usually the cause. For example, a death in the family, a divorce, or even a failing grade on an important test may
trigger harmful defensive reactions. Physical symptoms such as a change in personality, angry outbursts, depression, or a general lack
of interest may point to a problem. Drug or alcohol abuse also may become apparent. Less obvious indications may include social
withdrawal, preoccupation with certain ideas, or an inability to concentrate.
An instructor needs to be familiar with typical defense mechanisms and have some knowledge of related behavioral problems. A
perceptive instructor can help by using common sense and discussing the problem with the learner. The main objective should be to
restore motivation and self-confidence. It should be noted that the human psyche is fragile and could be damaged by inept measures.
Therefore, in severe cases involving the possibility of deep psychological problems, timely and skillful help is needed. In this event,
the instructor should recommend that the learner use the services of a professional counselor.
Learner Emotional Reactions
While it is not necessary for a flight instructor to be a certified psychologist, it is helpful to learn how to analyze learner behavior
before and during each flight lesson. This ability helps a flight instructor develop and use appropriate techniques for instruction yet to
occur.
Anxiety
Anxiety is probably the most significant psychological factor affecting flight instruction. This is true because flying is a potentially
threatening experience for those who are not accustomed to flying and the fear of falling is universal in human beings. While anxiety
is a factor associated with aviation activities where lives depend on consistently doing the job right, the following paragraphs are
primarily concerned with instruction and learner reactions.
Anxiety is a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, often about something that is going to happen, typically something with an
uncertain outcome. It results from the fear of anything, real or imagined, which threatens the person who experiences it, and may have
a potent effect on actions and the ability to learn from perceptions.
The responses to anxiety range from a hesitancy to act to the impulse to do something even if it’s wrong. Some people affecte d by
anxiety react appropriately, adequately, and more rapidly than they would in the absence of threat. Many, on the other hand, may
freeze and be incapable of doing anything to correct the situation that has caused their anxiety. Others may do things without rational
thought or reason.
Both normal and abnormal reactions to anxiety are of concern to the flight instructor. The normal reactions are significant because
they indicate a need for special instruction to relieve the anxiety. The abnormal reactions are even more important because they may
signify a deep-seated problem.
Anxiety can be countered by reinforcing the learners’ enjoyment of flying and by teaching them to cope with their fears. An effective
technique is to treat fears as a normal reaction, rather than ignoring them. Keep in mind that anxiety for learner pilots is usually
associated with certain types of flight operations and maneuvers. Instructors should introduce these maneuvers with care, so that
learners know what to expect and what their reactions should be. When introducing stalls, for example, instructors should first review
the aerodynamic principles and explain how stalls affect flight characteristics. Then, carefully describe the physical sensations to be
expected, as well as the recovery procedures.
Learner anxiety can be minimized throughout training by emphasizing the benefits and pleasurable experiences that can be derived
from flying, rather than by continuously citing the unhappy consequences of faulty performances. Safe flying practices should be
presented as conducive to satisfying, efficient, uninterrupted operations, rather than as necessary only to prevent catastrophe.
Impatience
Impatience is a greater deterrent to learning pilot skills than is generally recognized. For a learner, this may take the form of a desire
to make an early solo flight, or to set out on cross-country flights before the basic elements of flight have been learned.
The impatient learner fails to understand the need for preliminary training and seeks only the ultimate objective without considering
the means necessary to reach it. With every complex human endeavor, it is necessary to master the basics if the whole task is to be
performed competently and safely. The instructor can correct learner impatience by presenting the necessary preliminary training one
step at a time, with clearly stated goals for each step. The procedures and elements mastered in each step should be clearly identified
when explaining or demonstrating the performance of the subsequent step.
Impatience can result from instruction keyed to the pace of a slow learner when it is applied to a motivated, fast learner. It is just as
important that a learner be advanced to the subsequent step as soon as one goal has been attained, as it is to complete each step before
the next one is undertaken. Disinterest grows rapidly when unnecessary repetition and drill are requested on operations that have
already been adequately learned.