Aircraft engines represent another example of abstractions. When an instructor refers to aircraft engines in general, some learners
might think of jet engines, while others would think of reciprocating engines. Even reciprocating engine is too abstract since it could
be a radial engine, an inline engine, a V-type engine, or an opposed type engine. Use of the technical language of engines, as in
Lycoming IO-360, would narrow the engine type, but would only be understood by learners who understand the terminology
particular to aircraft engines.
Abstractions should be avoided in most cases, but there are times when abstractions are necessary and useful. Aerodynamics is
applicable to all aircraft and is an example of an abstraction that can lead to understanding aircraft flight characteristics. The danger
of abstractions is that they do not evoke the same specific items of experience in the minds of the learners that the instructor intends.
When such terms are used, they should be linked with specific experiences through examples and illustrations.
For instance, when an approach to landing is going badly, telling a learner to take appropriate measures might not result in the desired
action. It would be better to tell the learner to conduct a go-around since this is an action that has the same meaning. When
maintenance learners are being taught to torque the bolts on an engine, it would be better to tell them to torque the bolts in accordance
with the maintenance manual for that engine rather than simply to torque the bolts to the proper values. Whenever possible, the level
of abstraction should be reduced by using concrete, specific terms. This better defines and gains control of images produced in the
minds of the learners.
External Factors
Some barriers to effective communication can be controlled by the instructor. Others are external factors outside of the inst ructor’s
control that prevent a process or activity from being carried out properly. These factors may include physiological, environmental,
and psychological elements. To communicate effectively, the instructor should consider the effects of these factors and mitigate them
where possible.
Physiological external factors include biological conditions such as hearing loss, injury, physical illness, or other congenital
condition. These physiological factors may cause learner discomfort and inhibit communication. The instructor should adapt th e
presentation to allow the learner to feel better about the situation and be more receptive to new ideas. Adaptation could be as simple
as putting off a lesson until the learner is over an illness. Another accommodation could be the use of a seat cushion to allow a learner
to sit properly in the airplane.
With the advent of more sophisticated technology, multitasking has become a form of physiological external factors. The term
multitask comes from a computer’s ability to simultaneously execute more than one program or task at a time. Although it now refers
to humans performing multiple tasks simultaneously, humans are not computers. Research shows that although human comprehension
can handle two simple, low-level cognitive tasks at once, a higher level cognitive task takes brain function and concentration to
perform optimally. Adding even a simple activity diminishes the comprehension and recall of both. Research shows that multitasking
is just a series of constant micro-interruptions and “stop-go” decisions, all of which tend to reduce mental and motor performance.
Environmental external factors are caused by external physical conditions. One example of this is the noise level found in many light
aircraft. Noise not only impairs the communication process, but also can result in long-term damage to hearing. One solution to this
problem is the use of headphones and an intercom system. If an intercom system is not available, a good solution is the use o f
earplugs. It has been shown that in addition to protecting hearing, use of earplugs actually clarifies speaker output. Vibration is
another possible example of environmental external factors, applicable to rotary wing aircraft.
A psychological external factor is a product of how the instructor and learner feel at the time the communication process is occurring.
If either instructor or learner is not committed to the communication process, communication is impaired. Fear of the situation or
mistrust between the instructor and learner disrupts communication and severely inhibits the flow of information.
Interference
Interference occurs when the message gets disrupted, truncated, or added to somewhere in the communication sequence. While the
instructor or learner may believe that an intact message has been sent and received, the assumption may be inaccurate. Noise and
other factors may distort the message. Psychological factors also interfere with the receipt of a message. Instructors and learners
confirm the message and its proper communication when observing the effect of a message. Additional feedback and confirmation
reduce potential harmful effects from interference.
Developing Communication Skills
Communication skills need to be developed; they do not occur automatically. The ability to effectively communicate stems from
experience. The experience of instructional communication begins with role playing during training to be an instructor, continues
during the actual instruction, and is enhanced by additional training.
Role Playing
Role playing is a method of learning in which learners perform a particular role. In role playing, the learner is provided with a general
description of a situation and then applies a new skill or knowledge to perform the role. Experience in instructional communication
comes from actually doing it and is learned in the beginning by role playing during the instructor’s initial training. For example, a
flight instructor applicant can fly with a flight instructor who assumes the role of a learner pilot. In this role, the flight instructor can
duplicate known learner responses and then critique the applicant’s role as instructor. A mentor or supervisor can play the learner
AMT for a mainten ance instructor applicant.
It is essential for the flight instructor to develop good ground instruction skills, as well as flight instruction skills to prepare learners
for what is to transpire in the air. Likewise, the maintenance instructor develops classroom teaching skills to prepare the maintenance
learner for practical, hands-on tasks. In both cases, effective communication is necessary to reinforce the skills that have been
attempted and to assess or critique the results. This development continues as an instructor progresses in experience. What worked
early on might be refined or replaced by some other technique as the instructor gains more experience.
A new instructor is more likely to find a comfortable style of communication in an environment that is not threatening. For a
prospective maintenance instructor, this might take the form of conducting a class on welding while under the supervision of a
maintenance supervisor; the flight instructor applicant usually flies with a flight instructor who role plays as the learner.
Current Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) training emphasis has moved from a maneuvers-based training standard to what is
called scenario-based training (SBT). SBT is a highly effective approach that allows learners to understand, then apply their
knowledge as they participate in realistic scenarios. This method of instruction and learning allows learners to move from theory to
practical application of skills during their training. Instructor applicants, flight or maintenance, need to think in terms of SBT while
they are learners. Not only does it prepare them to react appropriately in the situations they encounter in the workplace, it also helps
them as instructors when they are responsible for creating scenarios for their learners.
For example, James (the flight instructor applicant) designs a scenario in which Ray (the flight instructor playing the role of
learner) is performing stalls to Airman Certification Standards (ACS). James briefs Ray on the maneuver before the flight,
demonstrates the stall, and then talks Ray through the maneuver. Ray pretends to be an anxious learner pilot, replicating
reactions he himself has experienced with flight learners. After the flight, James critiques their instruction period. As increased
emphasis is placed on SBT, there will be a corresponding increase in the importance of role playing.
Instructional Communication
Instruction has taken place when the instructor explains a particu lar procedure and subsequently determines that the learner exhibits
the desired response. Even so, the instructor can improve communication by adhering to techniques of good communication.
One of the basic principles used in public speaking courses is to encourage participants to make presentations about something they
understand. It would not be good if an instructor without a maintenance background tried to teach a course for aviation maintenance.
Instructors perform better when speaking of something they know very well and for which they have a high level of confidence.
The instructor should not be afraid to use examples of past experiences to illustrate particular points. When teaching the procedures to
be used for transitioning from instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) to visual cues during an approach, it would be hel pful to
be able to tell the learner about encountering these same conditions. An instructor’s personal experiences make instruction more
valuable than reading the same information in a textbook. The instructor should be cautioned, however, to exercise restraint with this
technique of illustration, as these types of discussions frequently degrade into a “war story” or “there I was” discussion.
The instructor needs some way of determining results, and the method used should be related to the expected outcome. In the case of
flight training, the instructor can judge the actual performance of a maneuver. For a maintenance learner, the instructor can judge the
level of accomplishment of a maintenance procedure. In both cases, the instructor determines whether the learner has actually
received and retained the knowledge or if acceptable performance was a one-time event.
The aviation learner should know how and why something should be done. For example, a maintenance learner may know how to
tighten a particular fastener to a specified torque, but it is more important to know that the security and integrity of any fastener
depends on proper torque. In this way, the learner would be more likely to torque all fasteners properly in the future. For a flight
learner, simply knowing the different airspeeds for takeoffs and landings is not enough. It is essential to know the reasons for different
airspeeds in specific situations to fully understand the importance of proper airspeed control. Normally, the instructor determines the
level of understanding by use of some type of evaluation. See Chapter 6, Assessment, for more information.
Listening
Instructors should know something about their learners in order to communicate effectively. As discussed earlier, an instructor needs
to determine the abilities of the learners and properly communicate, and one way of becoming better acquainted with learners is to be
a good listener. Good instructors work to master listening ability and frequently self-evaluate in this area. Instructors can use a
number of techniques to become better at listening. [Figure 4-5]
Figure 4-5. Instructors can use a number of tools to become better at listening.
Just as it is important for instructors to want to listen in order to be effective listeners, it is necessary for learners to want to listen.
Wanting to listen is just one of several techniques that allow a learner to listen effectively. Instructors can improve the percentage of
information transfer by teaching learners how to listen. [Figure 4-6]
Listening is more than hearing. Most instructors are familiar with the concept that listening is “hearing with comprehension.” When
the learner hears something being communicated, he or she may or may not comprehend what is being transmitted. On the other hand,
when the learner truly hears the communication, he or she then interprets the communication based on their knowledge to that point,
processes the information to a level of understanding, and attempts to make a correlation of that communicated information to the
task at hand. The increased level of motivation of typical flight and aviation maintenance learners makes this process much easier.
Remind learners that certain emotions interfere with how they listen. For example, an instrument learner pilot anticipating drastic
changes in requested routing becomes anxious. In this frame of mind, it is very difficult for the learner to listen and process the new
route. If a learner who is terrified of the prospect of spins attempts to listen to a lesson on spins, the emotions felt might overwhelm
the attempt to listen. This requires a means to allay the anxiety and fear. If the instructor or learner knows that certain areas arouse
emotion, they may consider additional conditioning that prepares the learner to listen.
Figure 4-6. Learners can improve their listening skills by applying the steps to effective listening.
Listening for main ideas is another listening technique. Primarily a technique for listening to a lecture or formal lesson presentation, it
sometimes applies to hands-on situations as well. People who concentrate on remembering or recording facts might very well miss the
message because they have not picked up on the big picture. A listener should always ask, what is the purpose of what I am listening
to? By doing this, the listener can relate the words to the overall concept.
The instructor should ensure that the learner is aware of the danger of daydreaming. Most people can listen much faster than even the
fastest talker can speak. This leaves room for the mind to get off onto some other subject. The listener who is aware of this problem
can concentrate on repeating, paraphrasing, or summarizing the speaker’s words. Doing so uses the extra time to reinforce the
speaker’s words, allowing the learner to retain more of the information.
Nobody can remember everything. Note taking allows the learner to use an organized system to reconstruct what was said during the
lesson. Every learner has a slightly different system, but no attempt to record the lecture verbatim should be made.
In most cases, a shorthand or abbreviated system of the learner’s choosing should be encouraged. Notetaking is merely a method of
allowing the learner to recreate the lecture so that it can be studied. The same notetaking skills can be used outside the classroom any
time information needs to be retained. For example, copying an instrument clearance word for word is very difficult. By knowing the
format of a typical clearance, learner instrument pilots can develop their own system of abbreviations. This allows them to copy the
clearance in a useful form for read back and for flying the clearance. By incorporating all or some of these techniques, learners retain
more information. Instructors can vastly improve retention of information by making certain their learners have the best possible
listening skills.
Questioning
Good questioning can determine how well the learner understands what is being taught. It also shows the learner that the instructor is
paying attention and that the instructor is interested in the learner’s response. An instructor should ask focused, open-ended questions
and avoid closed-ended questions.
Focused questions allow the instructor to concentrate on desired areas. An instructor may ask for additional details, examples, and
impressions from the learner. This allows the instructor to ask further questions if necessary. The presentation can then be modified to
fit the understanding of the learner.
Open-ended questions are designed to encourage full, meaningful answers using the learner’s own knowledge and perceptions while
closed-ended questions encourage a short or single-word answer. Open-ended questions, which typically begin with words such as
“why” and “how” tend to be more objective and less leading than closed-ended questions. Often open-ended questions are not
technically questions, but statements that implicitly ask for completion. An instructor’s ability to ask open-ended questions is an
important skill to develop.
In contrast, closed- ended questions tend to evaluate the learner’s understanding only at the rote level of learning. Closed-ended
questions can be answered by “yes” or “no.” When used in a multiple choice scenario, closed-ended questions have a finite set of
answers from which the respondent chooses. One of the choices may be “other.” It is a good idea to allow respondents to write in an
optional response if they choose “other” because developing the learner response may lead to insights into the learning process.
One benefit of closed-ended questions is that they are relatively easy to standardize and the data gathered easily lend themselves to
statistical analysis. The down side to closed-ended questions is that they are more difficult to write than open-ended questions,
generally lead the learner towards the desired answer, and may under certain circumstances direct the conversation toward the
instructor’s own agenda.
To be effective, questions, regardless of the type, are adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the learner. Effective
questions and, therefore, effective communications center on only one idea. A single question should be limited to who, what, when,
where, why, or how and not a combination of these. Effective questioning presents a challenge to the learner. Questions of suitable
difficulty serve to stimulate learning.
Two ways of confirming that the learner and instructor understand things in the same way are the use of paraphrasing and perception
checking. The instructor can use paraphrasing to show what the learner’s statement meant to the instructor. In this way, the learner
can then make any corrections or expansions on the statement in order to clarify. Perception checking gets to the feelings of the
learner, again by stating what perceptions the instructor has of the behavior that the learner can then clarify as necessary.
Since it is important that the instructor understand as much as possible about the learners, instructors can be much more effective by
using improved listening skills and effective questions to help in putting themselves in the place of the learners. Questions should be
phrased to focus the learner on the decision-making process and the exercise of good judgment.
Knowledge of the subject material and skill at instructional communication are necessary to be an instructor. Increasing the depth of
knowledge in either area makes the instructor more effective.
Instructional Enhancement
An instructor never stops learning. While professional development is discussed in greater detail in Chapter 8, the more an instructor
knows about a subject, the better the instructor is at conveying that information. For example, a maintenance instructor teaching basic
electricity might be able to teach at a minimally satisfactory level if the instructor had only the same training level as that being
taught. If asked a question that exceeded the instructor’s knowledge, the instructor could research the answer and get back to the
learner. It would be much better if the instructor, through experience or additional training, was prepared to answer the question
initially. Additional knowledge and training would also bolster the instructor’s confidence and give the instructional presen tation
more depth. Technically qualified instructors, however, consider the level of the learner and present relevant information to enhance
understanding or to stimulate the interest of the learner.
Chapter Summary
An awareness of the basic elements of the communicative process (source, symbols, and receiver) is the foundation for a successful
communicator. Recognizing the various barriers to communication further enhances the flow of ideas between an instructor and the
learner. Instructors develop communications skills in order to convey desired information to the learners. They also recognize that
communication is a two-way process. In the end, successful communication has taken place if the desired results have been achieved.