Text-only reference. Published from the recorded official FAA Airframe Chapter 8 PDF. Diagrams, photographs, and figure artwork are not reproduced here; use the official FAA PDF for those materials.
Chapter 8 Aircraft Painting & Finishing
Introduction
Paint, or more specifically its overall color and application, is usually the first impression that is transmitted to someone when they look at an aircraft for the first time. Paint makes a statement about the aircraft and the person who owns or operates it. The paint scheme may reflect the owner’s ideas and color preferences for an amateur-built aircraft project, or it may be colors and identification for the recognition of a corporate or air carrier aircraft. Paint is more than aesthetics; it affects the weight of the aircraft and protects the integrity of the airframe. The topcoat finish is applied to protect the exposed surfaces from corrosion and deterioration. Also, a properly painted aircraft is easier to clean and maintain because the exposed surfaces are more resistant to corrosion and dirt, and oil does not adhere as readily to the surface.
A wide variety of materials and finishes are used to protect and provide the desired appearance of the aircraft. The term “paint” is used in a general sense and includes primers, enamels, lacquers, and the various multipart finishing formulas. Paint has three components: resin as coating material, pigment for color, and solvents to reduce the mix to a workable viscosity. Internal structure and unexposed components are finished to protect them from corrosion and deterioration. All exposed surfaces and components are finished to provide protection and to present a pleasing appearance. Decorative finishing includes trim striping, the addition of company logos and emblems, and the application of decals, identification numbers, and letters.
Finishing Materials A wide variety of materials are used in aircraft finishing. Some of the more common materials and their uses are described in the following paragraphs. Acetone Acetone is a fast-evaporating colorless solvent. It is used as an ingredient in paint, nail polish, and varnish removers. It is a strong solvent for most plastics and is ideal for thinning fiberglass resin, polyester resins, vinyl, and adhesives. It is also used as a superglue remover. Acetone is a heavy-duty degreaser suitable for metal preparation and removing grease from fabric covering prior to doping. It should not be used as a thinner in dope because of its rapid evaporation, which causes the doped area to cool and collect moisture. This absorbed moisture prevents uniform drying and results in blushing of the dope and a flat no-gloss finish.
Alcohol Butanol, or butyl alcohol, is a slow-drying solvent that can be mixed with aircraft dope to retard drying of the dope film on humid days, thus preventing blushing. A mixture of dope solvent containing 5 to 10 percent of butyl alcohol is usually sufficient for this purpose. Butanol and ethanol alcohol are mixed together in ratios ranging from 1:1 to 1:3 to use to dilute wash coat primer for spray applications because the butyl alcohol retards the evaporation rate. Ethanol or denatured alcohol is used to thin shellac for spraying and as a constituent of paint and varnish remover. It can also be used as a cleaner and degreaser prior to painting.
Isopropyl, or rubbing alcohol, can be used as a disinfectant. It is used in the formulation of oxygen system cleaning solutions. It can be used to remove grease pencil and permanent marker from smooth surfaces, or to wipe hand or fingerprint oil from a surface before painting. Benzene Benzene is a highly flammable, colorless liquid with a sweet odor. It is a product used in some paint and varnish removers. It is an industrial solvent that is regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) because it is an extremely toxic chemical compound when inhaled or absorbed through the skin. It has been identified as a Class A carcinogen known to cause various forms of cancer. It should be avoided for use as a common cleaning solvent for paint equipment and spray guns.
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK) Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), also referred to as 2-Butanone, is a highly flammable, liquid solvent used in paint and varnish removers, paint and primer thinners, in surface coatings, adhesives, printing inks, as a catalyst for polyester resin hardening, and as an extraction medium for fats, oils, waxes, and resins. Because of its effectiveness as a quickly evaporating solvent, MEK is used in formulating high solids coatings that help to reduce emissions from coating operations. Persons using MEK should use protective gloves 8-1 and have adequate ventilation to avoid the possible irritation effects of skin contact and breathing of the vapors.
Methylene Chloride Methylene chloride is a colorless, volatile liquid completely miscible with a variety of other solvents. It is widely used in paint strippers and as a cleaning agent/degreaser for metal parts. It has no flash point under normal use conditions and can be used to reduce the flammability of other substances. Toluene Referred to as toluol or methylbenzene, toluene is a clear, water-insoluble liquid with a distinct odor similar to that of benzene. It is a common solvent used in paints, paint thinners, lacquers, and adhesives. It has been used as a paint remover in softening fluorescent-finish, clear-topcoat sealing materials.
It is also an acceptable thinner for zinc chromate primer. It has been used as an antiknocking additive in gasoline. Prolonged exposure to toluene vapors should be avoided because it may be linked to brain damage. Turpentine Turpentine is obtained by distillation of wood from certain pine trees. It is a flammable, water-insoluble liquid solvent used as a thinner and quick-drier for varnishes, enamels, and other oil-based paints. Turpentine can be used to clean paint equipment and paint brushes used with oil-based paints. Mineral Spirits Sometimes referred to as white spirit, Stoddard solvent, or petroleum spirits, mineral spirits is a petroleum distillate used as a paint thinner and mild solvent. The reference to the name Stoddard came from a dry cleaner who helped to develop it in the 1920s as a less volatile dry cleaning solvent and as an alternative to the more volatile petroleum solvents that were being used for cleaning clothes. It is the most widely used solvent in the paint industry, used in aerosols, paints, wood preservatives, lacquers, and varnishes. It is also commonly used to clean paint brushes and paint equipment. Mineral spirits are used in industry for cleaning and degreasing machine tools and parts because it is very effective in removing oils and greases from metal. It has low odor, is less flammable, and less toxic than turpentine.
Naphtha Naphtha is one of a wide variety of volatile hydrocarbon mixtures that is sometimes processed from coal tar but more often derived from petroleum. Naphtha is used as a solvent for various organic substances, such as fats and rubber, and in the making of varnish. It is used as a cleaning fluid and is incorporated into some laundry soaps. Naphtha has a low flashpoint and is used as a fuel in portable stoves and lanterns. It is sold under different names around the world and is known as white gas, or Coleman fuel, in North America. Linseed Oil Linseed oil is the most commonly used carrier in oil paint. It makes the paint more fluid, transparent, and glossy. It is used to reduce semipaste oil colors, such as dull black stenciling paint and insignia colors, to a brushing consistency. Linseed oil is also used as a protective coating on the interior of metal tubing. Linseed oil is derived from pressing the dried ripe flax seeds of the flax plant to obtain the oil and then using a process called solvent extraction. Oil obtained without the solvent extraction process is marketed as flaxseed oil. The term “boiled linseed oil” indicates that it was processed with additives to shorten its drying time.
A note of caution is usually added to packaging of linseed oil with the statement, “Risk of Fire from Spontaneous Combustion Exists with this Product.” Linseed oil generates heat as it dries. Oily materials and rags must be properly disposed after use to eliminate the possible cause of spontaneous ignition and fire. Thinners Thinners include a plethora of solvents used to reduce the viscosity of any one of the numerous types of primers, subcoats, and topcoats. The types of thinner used with the various coatings is addressed in other sections of this chapter. Varnish Varnish is a transparent protective finish primarily used for finishing wood. It is available in interior and exterior grades. The exterior grade does not dry as hard as the interior grade, allowing it to expand and contract with the temperature changes of the material being finished. Varnish is traditionally a combination of a drying oil, a resin, and a thinner or solvent. It has little or no color, is transparent, and has no added pigment. Varnish dries slower than most other finishes. Resin varnishes dry and harden when the solvents in them evaporate. Polyurethane and epoxy varnishes remain liquid after the evaporation of the solvent but quickly begin to cure through chemical reactions of the varnish components.
Primers The importance of primers in finishing and protection is generally misunderstood and underestimated because it is invisible after the topcoat finish is applied. A primer is the foundation of the finish. Its role is to bond to the surface, inhibit corrosion of metal, and provide an anchor point for the finish coats. It is important that the primer pigments be either anodic to the metal surface or passivate the surface should moisture be present. The binder must be compatible with the finish coats. Primers on nonmetallic surfaces do not require sacrificial or passivating pigments. Some of the various primer types are discussed below.
8-2 Wash Primers Wash primers are water-thin coatings of phosphoric acid in solutions of vinyl butyral resin, alcohol, and other ingredients. They are very low in solids with almost no filling qualities. Their functions are to passivate the surface, temporarily provide corrosion resistance, and provide an adhesive base for the next coating, such as a urethane or epoxy primer. Wash primers do not require sanding and have high-corrosion protection qualities. Some have a very small recoat time frame that must be considered when painting larger aircraft. The manufacturers’ instructions must be followed for satisfactory results.
Red Iron Oxide Red oxide primer is an alkyd resin-based coating that was developed for use over iron and steel located in mild environmental conditions. It can be applied over rust that is free of loose particles, oil, and grease. It has limited use in the aviation industry. Gray Enamel Undercoat This is a single component, nonsanding primer compatible with a wide variety of topcoats. It fills minor imperfections, dries fast without shrinkage, and has high-corrosion resistance. It is a good primer for composite substrates. Urethane This is a term that is misused or interchanged by painters and manufacturers alike. It is typically a two-part product that uses a chemical activator to cure by linking molecules together to form a whole new compound. Polyurethane is commonly used when referring to urethane, but not when the product being referred to is acrylic urethane.
Urethane primer, like the urethane paint, is also a two-part product that uses a chemical activator to cure. It is easy to sand and fills well. The proper film thickness must be observed, because it can shrink when applied too heavily. It is typically applied over a wash primer for best results. Special precautions must be taken by persons spraying because the activators contain isocyanates (discussed further in the Protective Equipment section at the end of this chapter). Epoxy Epoxy is a synthetic, thermosetting resin that produces tough, hard, chemical-resistant coatings and adhesives. It uses a catalyst to chemically activate the product, but it is not classified as hazardous because it contains no isocyanates.
Epoxy can be used as a nonsanding primer/sealer over bare metal and it is softer than urethane, so it has good chip resistance. It is recommended for use on steel tube frame aircraft prior to installing fabric covering. Zinc Chromate Zinc chromate is a corrosion-resistant pigment that can be added to primers made of different resin types, such as epoxy, polyurethane, and alkyd. Older type zinc chromate is distinguishable by its bright yellow color when compared to the light green color of some of the current brand primers. Moisture in the air causes the zinc chromate to react with the metal surface, and it forms a passive layer that prevents corrosion. Zinc chromate primer was, at one time, the standard primer for aircraft painting. Environmental concerns and new formula primers have all but replaced it.
Identification of Paints Dope When fabric-covered aircraft ruled the sky, dope was the standard finish used to protect and color the fabric. The dope imparted additional qualities of increased tensile strength, airtightness, weather-proofing, ultraviolet (UV) protection, and tautness to the fabric cover. Aircraft dope is essentially a colloidal solution of cellulose acetate or nitrate combined with plasticizers to produce a smooth, flexible, homogeneous film. Dope is still used on fabric covered aircraft as part of a covering process. However, the type of fabric being used to cover the aircraft has changed. Grade A cotton or linen was the standard covering used for years, and it still may be used if it meets the requirements of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), Technical Standard Order (TSO) C-15d/AMS 3806c.
Polyester fabric coverings now dominate in the aviation industry. These new fabrics have been specifically developed for aircraft and are far superior to cotton and linen. The protective coating and topcoat finishes used with the Ceconite ® polyester fabric covering materials are part of a Supplemental Type Certificate (STC) and must be used as specified when covering any aircraft with a Standard Airworthiness Certificate. The Ceconite® covering procedures use specific brand name, nontautening nitrate and butyrate dope as part of the STC. The Poly-Fiber® system also uses a special polyester fabric covering as part of its STC, but it does not use dope. All the liquid products in the Poly-Fiber ® system are made from vinyl, not from cellulose dope. The vinyl coatings have several real advantages over dope: they remain flexible, they do not shrink, they do not support combustion, and they are easily removed from the fabric with MEK, which simplifies most repairs.
8-3 Synthetic Enamel Synthetic enamel is an oil-based, single-stage paint (no clear coat) that provides durability and protection. It can be mixed with a hardener to increase the durability and shine while decreasing the drying time. It is one of the more economical types of finish. Lacquers The origin of lacquer dates back thousands of years to a resin obtained from trees indigenous to China. In the early 1920s, nitrocellulose lacquer was developed from a process using cotton and wood pulp. Nitrocellulose lacquers produce a hard, semiflexible finish that can be polished to a high sheen. The clear variety yellows as it ages, and it can shrink over time to a point that the surface crazes. It is easy to spot repair because each new coat of lacquer softens and blends into the previous coat. This was one of the first coatings used by the automotive industry in mass production, because it reduced finishing times from almost two weeks to two days.
Acrylic lacquers were developed to eliminate the yellowing problems and crazing of the nitrocellulose lacquers. General Motors started using acrylic lacquer in the mid-1950s, and they used it into the 1960s on some of their premium model cars. Acrylics have the same working properties but dry to a less brittle and more flexible film than nitrocellulose lacquer. Lacquer is one of the easiest paints to spray, because it dries quickly and can be applied in thin coats. However, lacquer is not very durable; bird droppings, acid rain, and gasoline spills actually eat down into the paint. It still has limited use on collector and show automobiles because they are usually kept in a garage, protected from the environment.
The current use of lacquer for an exterior coating on an aircraft is almost nonexistent because of durability and environmental concerns. Upwards of 85 percent of the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the spray gun ends up in the atmosphere, and some states have banned its use. There are some newly developed lacquers that use a catalyst, but they are used mostly in the woodworking and furniture industry. They have the ease of application of nitrocellulose lacquer with much better water, chemical, and abrasion resistance. Additionally, catalyzed lacquers cure chemically, not solely through the evaporation of solvents, so there is a reduction of VOCs released into the atmosphere. It is activated when the catalyst is added to the base mixture.
Polyurethane Polyurethane is at the top of the list when compared to other coatings for abrasion-, stain-, and chemical-resistant properties. Polyurethane was the coating that introduced the wet look. It has a high degree of natural resistance to the damaging effects of UV rays from the sun. Polyurethane is usually the first choice for coating and finishing the corporate and commercial aircraft in today’s aviation environment. Urethane Coating The term urethane applies to certain types of binders used for paints and clear coatings. (A binder is the component that holds the pigment together in a tough, continuous film and provides film integrity and adhesion.) Typically, urethane is a two-part coating that consists of a base and catalyst that, when mixed, produces a durable, high-gloss finish that is abrasion- and chemical-resistant.
Acrylic Urethanes Acrylic simply means plastic. It dries to a harder surface but is not as resistant to harsh chemicals as polyurethane. Most acrylic urethanes need additional UV inhibitors added when subject to the UV rays of the sun. Methods of Applying Finish There are several methods of applying aircraft finish. Among the most common are dipping, brushing, and spraying. Dipping The application of finishes by dipping is generally confined to factories or large repair stations. The process consists of dipping the part to be finished in a tank filled with the finishing material. Primer coats are frequently applied in this manner.
Brushing Brushing has long been a satisfactory method of applying finishes to all types of surfaces. Brushing is generally used for small repair work and on surfaces where it is not practicable to spray paint. The material to be applied should be thinned to the proper consistency for brushing. A material that is too thick has a tendency to pull or rope under the brush. If the materials are too thin, they are likely to run or not cover the surface adequately. Proper thinning and substrate temperature allows the finish to flow-out and eliminates the brush marks. Spraying Spraying is the preferred method for a quality finish.
Spraying is used to cover large surfaces with a uniform layer of material, which results in the most cost effective method of application. All spray systems have several basic similarities. There must be an adequate source of compressed 8-4