Circuit Test Instruments and Safe Use

12-79 Applied(0) volts (+) volts Horizontal deflection plates (H) Vertical deflection plates (V) (0) volts The horizontal beam position will depend on the applied saw-tooth voltage Voltage starts at a maximum negative value and increases to a maximum positive value, tracing the beam from the left to the right (−) volts Vertical deflection plates (v) Horizontal deflection plates (h)Screen Beam on center (0) volts (−) volts Electrons repelled down (−) volts Electrons repelled to left (0) volts (0) volts(0) volts (0) volts (+) volts Electrons attracted up (+) volts Electrons attracted to right (0) volts component/conductor and ground. It usually creates high current flow, which burns out or causes damage to the circuit conductor or components.

• Open circuit—a circuit that is not a complete or continuous path. An open circuit represents an infinitely large resistance. Switches are common devices used to open and close a circuit. Sometimes a circuit opens due to a component failure, such as a light bulb or a burned out resistor. • Continuity—the state of being continuous, uninterrupted or connected together; the opposite of a circuit that is not broken or does not have an open. • Discontinuity—the opposite of continuity, indicating that a circuit is broken or not continuous. Voltage Measurement V oltage is measured across a component with a voltmeter or the voltmeter position on a multimeter. Usually, there is a DC and an AC selection on the meter. Before the meter is used for measurements, make sure that the meter is selected for the correct type of voltage. When placing the probes across a component to take a measurement, take care to ensure that the polarity is correct. [Figure 12-170] Standard practice is for the red meter lead to be installed in the positive (+) jack and the black meter lead to be installed in the negative meter jack (−). Then when placing the probes across or in parallel with a component to measure the voltage, the leads should match the polarity of the component. The red lead is on the positive 12-80 Applied (0) volts (+) volts Horizontal deflection plates (h) (−) volts Vertical deflection plates (v) (0) volts (–) volts (+) volts (0) volts Input signal side of the component and the black is on the negative side, which prevents damage to the meter or incorrect readings.

All meters have some resistance and will shunt some of the current. This has the effect of changing the characteristic of the circuit because of this change in current. This is typically more of a concern with older analog type meters. If there are any questions about the magnitude of the voltage across a component, then the meter should be set to measure on the highest voltage range. This prevents the meter from “pegging” and possible damage. The range should then be selected to low values until the measured voltage is read at the mid-scale deflection. Readings taken at mid-scale are the most accurate.

Current Measurement Current is measured with the ammeter connected in the current path by opening or breaking the circuit and inserting the meter in series. [Figure 12-170] Standard practice is for the red meter lead to be installed in the positive (+) jack and the black meter lead to be installed in the negative meter jack (−). The positive side of the meter is connected towards the positive voltage source. Ideally, the meter should not alter the current and influence the circuit and the measurements. However, the meter does have some effect because of its internal resistance that is connected with the rest of the circuit in series. The resistance is rather small and for most practical purposes, this can be neglected.

Checking Resistance in a Circuit The ohmmeter is used to measure the resistance. In its more basic form, the ohmmeter consists of a variable resistor in series with a meter movement and a voltage source. The meter must first be adjusted before use. Refer to Figure 12-171 for meter configurations during adjustments. When the meter leads are not connected (open), the needle points to the full left-hand position, indicating infinite resistance or and open circuit. With the lead placed together, the circuit is shorted as shown with the meter needle to the full right-hand position. When a connection is made, the internal battery is allowed to produce a current through the movement coil, causing a deflection of the 12-81 needle in proportion to the value of the external resistance.

In this case, the resistance is zero because the leads are shorted. The purpose of the variable resistor in the meter is to adjust the current so that the pointer reads exactly zero when the leads are shorted. This is needed because as the battery continues to be used, the voltage changes, thus requiring an adjustment. The meter should be “zeroed” before each use. To check the value of a resistor, the resistor must be disconnected from the circuit. This prevents any possible damage to the ohmmeter, and it prevents the possibility of any inaccurate readings due to the circuit being in parallel with the resistor in question. [Figure 12-172] Continuity Checks In many cases, the ohmmeter is not used for measuring the resistance of a component but to simply check the integrity of a connection from one portion of a circuit to another. If there is a good connection, then the ohmmeter reads a near zero resistance or a short. If the circuit is open or has a very poor connection at some point like an over-crimped pin in a connector, then the ohmmeter reads infinity or some very high resistance. Keep in mind that while any measurement is being taken, contact with the circuit or probes should be avoided. Contact can introduce another parallel path and provide misleading indications.

Capacitance Measurement ohmmeter. There are usually two common modes of failure for a capacitor. One is a complete failure characterized by short circuit through the capacitor due to the dielectric breaking down or an open circuit. The more insidious failure occurs due to degradation, which is a gradual deterioration of the capacitor’s characteristics. If a problem is suspected, remove the capacitor from the circuit and check with an ohmmeter. The first step is to short the two leads of the capacitor to ensure that it is entirely discharged. Next, connect the two leads as shown in Figure 12-173 across the capacitor and observe the needle movement. At first, the needle should indicate a short circuit. Then as the capacitor begins to charge, the needle should move to the left or infinity and eventually indicate an open circuit. The capacitor takes its charge from the internal battery of the ohmmeter. The greater the capacitance, the longer it takes to charge. If the capacitor is shorted, then the needle remains at a very low or shorted resistance. If there is some internal deterioration of the dielectric, then the needle never reaches a high resistance but some intermediate value, indicating a current.

Inductance Measurement The common mode of failure in an inductor is an open. To check the integrity of an inductor, it must be removed from the circuit and tested as an isolated component just like the capacitor. If there is an open in the inductor, a simple check with an ohmmeter shows it as an open circuit with infinite resistance. If in fact the inductor is in good condition, then the ohmmeter indicates the resistance of the coil. On occasions, the inductor fails due to overheating. When the inductor is overheated, it is possible for the insulation covering the wire in the coil to melt, causing a short. The effects of a shorted coil are that of reducing the number of turns. At this point, further testing of the inductor must be