balloon by actually performing flight maneuvers. Students also learn mental skills, such as speed reading, by this method.
Skills requiring the use of tools, machines, and equipment are particularly well suited to this instructional method.
Every instructor should recognize the importance of student performance in the learning process. Early in a lesson that is to
include demonstration and performance, the instructor should identify the most important learning outcomes. Next, explain
and demonstrate the steps involved in performing the skill being taught. Then, allow students time to practice each step, so
they can increase their ability to perform the skill.
The demonstration-performance method of teaching has five essential phases:
• Explanation Phase—explanations must be clear, pertinent to the objectives of the particular lesson to be
presented, and based on the known experience and knowledge of the student. In addition to the necessary actions to
be performed, the instructor should describe the end result of these efforts.
• Demonstration Phase—the instructor must show the student the actions necessary to perform a skill.
• Student Performance and Instructor Supervision Phases—these two phases, which involve separate actions, are
performed concurrently, and are thus described under a single heading. The first action is the performance by the
student of the physical or mental skill that had been explained. The second is the instructor’s supervision, insuring
that errors are immediately corrected to standards already prescribed.
• Evaluation Phase—in this final phase, the instructor judges student performance. The student performs whatever
competence has been attained, and the instructor evaluates and discovers just how well the skill has been learned.
Form this measurement of student achievement, the instructor determines the effectiveness of the instruction.
Computer-based Training
Many new and innovative training technologies are available today. One of the most significant is computer-based training
(CBT)—the use of the personal computer as a training device. [ Figure 10-10] CBT is sometimes called computer-based
instruction (CBI). The terms CBT and CBI are synonymous and may be used interchangeably.
Figure 10-10. The instructor must continually monitor student performance when using CBT, as with all instructional aids.
Common examples of CBT with specific application to balloon flight training include the computer versions of the test
prep study guides which are useful for preparation for the FAA knowledge tests. These programs typically allow the
students to select a test, complete the questions, and find out how they did on the test. The student may then conduct a
review of questions missed. An excellent resource for balloon training is the website webexams.com; this provides the
student with the ability to take practice exams, which assists in determining weaknesses in training.
While computers provide many training advantages, they also have limitations. Improper or excessive use of CBT should
be avoided. Computer-based training should not be used by the instructor as stand-alone training any more than a textbook
or video. Like video or a textbook, CBT is an aid to the instructor. The instructor must be actively involved with the students
when using instructional aids. This involvement should include close supervision, questions, examinations, quizzes, or
guided discussions on the subject matter.
Techniques of Flight Instruction
In this section, the demonstration-performance method is applied to the telling-and-doing technique of flight instruction,
as well as the integrated technique of flight instruction.
The Telling-and-Doing Technique
This technique has been in use for a long time and is very effective in teaching physical skills. Flight instructors find it
valuable in teaching procedures and maneuvers. The telling-and-doing technique is actually a variation of the demonstration-
performance method. In the telling-and-doing technique, the first step is preparation. This is particularly important in flight
instruction because of the introduction of new maneuvers or procedures. The flight instructor needs to be well prepared
and highly organized if complex maneuvers and procedures are to be taught effectively. The student must be intellectually
and psychologically ready for the learning activity. The preparation step is accomplished prior to the flight lesson with a
discussion of lesson objectives and completion standards, as well as a thorough preflight briefing. [Figure 10-11]
Preparation
Instructor tells
Instructor does
Student tells
Student does
Student does
Instructor evaluates
Teaching Process Demonstration Performance
Method Telling-and-Doing Technique
Student tells
Instructor
does
Preparation Explanation
Presentation Demonstration
Application Student performance supervision
Review and evaluation Evaluation
Figure 10-11. Comparison of steps in the teaching process, the demonstration-performance method, and the telling-and-doing
technique. This comparison shows the similarities, as well as some differences. The main difference in the telling-and-doing technique
is the important transition, student tells—instructor does, which occurs between the second and third step.
Instructor Tells-Instructor Does
Presentation is the second step in the teaching process. It is a continuation of preparing the student, which began in
the detailed preflight discussion, and now continues by a carefully planned demonstration and accompanying verbal
explanation of the procedure or maneuver. It is important that the demonstration conforms to the explanation as closely
as possible. In addition, it should be demonstrated in the same sequence in which it was explained to avoid confusion and
provide reinforcement.
Student Tells-Instructor Does
This is a transition between the second and third steps in the teaching process. It is the most obvious departure from the
demonstration-performance technique, and may provide the most significant advantages. In this step, the student actually
plays the role of instructor, telling the instructor what to do and how to do it. Two benefits accrue from this step. First,
being freed from the need to concentrate on performance of the maneuver and from concern about its outcome, the student
should be able to organize their thoughts regarding the steps involved and the techniques to be used. In the process of
explaining the maneuver as the instructor performs it, perceptions begin to develop into insights. Mental habits begin to
form with repetition of the instructions previously received. Second, with the student doing the talking, the instructor is
able to evaluate the student’s understanding of the factors involved in performance of the maneuver.
Student Tells-Student Does
Application is the third step in the teaching process. This is where learning takes place and where performance habits
are formed. If the student has been adequately prepared (first step) and the procedure or maneuver fully explained and
demonstrated (second step), meaningful learning occurs. The instructor should be alert during the student’s practice to
detect any errors in technique and to prevent the formation of faulty habits.
At the same time, the student should be encouraged to think about what to do during the performance of a maneuver, until
it becomes habitual. In this step, the thinking is done verbally. This focuses concentration on the task to be accomplished,
so that total involvement in the maneuver is fostered.
Student Does-Instructor Evaluates
The fourth step of the teaching process is review and evaluation. In this step, the instructor reviews what has been covered
during the instructional flight and determines to what extent the student has met the objectives outlined during the preflight
discussion. Since the student no longer is required to talk through the maneuver during this step, the instructor should be
satisfied that the student is well prepared and understands the task before starting. This last step is identical to the final step
used in the demonstration-performance method. The instructor observes as the student performs, then makes appropriate
comments.
At the conclusion of the evaluation phase, record the student’s performance and verbally advise each student of the
progress made toward the objectives. Regardless of how well a skill is taught, there may still be failures. Since success is a
motivating factor, instructors should be positive in revealing results. When pointing out areas that need improvement, offer
concrete suggestions that help. The instructor should make every effort to end the evaluation on a positive note.
Critique & Evaluation
Since every student is different and each learning situation is unique, the actual outcome may not be entirely as expected.
The instructor must be able to appraise student performance and convey this information back to the student. No skill is more
important to an instructor than the ability to analyze, appraise, and judge student performance. The student quite naturally
looks to the instructor for guidance, analysis, appraisal, as well as suggestions for improvement and encouragement. This
feedback from instructor to student is called a critique.
In most cases, a critique should be conducted in private. It should come immediately after a student’s performance, while
the details of the performance are easy to recall. An instructor may critique any activity which a student performs or
practices to improve skill, proficiency, and learning.
Two common misconceptions about the critique should be corrected at the outset. First, a critique is not a step in the
grading process. It is a step in the learning process. Second, a critique is not necessarily negative in content. It considers the
good along with the bad, the individual parts, relationships of the individual parts, and the overall performance. A critique
can, and usually should, be as varied in content as the performance being critiqued.
Purpose of a Critique
A critique should provide the student with something constructive upon which they can work or build. It should provide
direction and guidance to raise their level of performance. Students must understand the purpose of the critique; otherwise,
they are unlikely to accept the criticism offered and little improvement will result.
Methods of Critique
The critique of student performance is always the instructor’s responsibility, and it can never be delegated in its entirety.
The instructor can add interest and variety to the criticism through the use of imagination and by drawing on the talents,
ideas, and opinions of others. There are several useful methods of conducting a critique, two of which have specific
application to balloon flight instruction.
Student-Led Critique
The instructor asks a student to lead the critique. The instructor can specify the pattern of organization and the techniques
or can leave it to the discretion of the student leader. Because of the inexperience of the participants in the lesson area,
student-led critiques may not be efficient, but they can generate student interest and learning and, on the whole, be effective.
Self-Critique
A student is required to critique personal performance. Like all other methods, a self-critique must be controlled and
supervised by the instructor. Whatever the methods employed, the instructor must not leave controversial issues unresolved,
nor erroneous impressions uncorrected. The instructor must make allowances for the student’s relative inexperience.
Normally, the instructor should reserve time at the end of the student critique to cover those areas that might have been
omitted, not emphasized sufficiently, or considered worth repeating. One variant of this method is for the instructor to ask
the student to name three negative aspects of the flight training period, and discuss corrective action. Then, the instructor
asks for three positive aspects of the training. This also indicates to the instructor whether or not the student is able to
analyze their performance, in relation to the standards sought.
Ground Rules for Critiquing
There are a number of rules and techniques to keep in mind when conducting a critique. The following list can be applied,
regardless of the type of critiquing activity.
• Avoid trying to cover too much. A few well-made points usually is more beneficial than a large number of points
that are not developed adequately.
• Allow time for a summary of the critique to reemphasize the most important things a student should remember.
• Never allow yourself to be maneuvered into the unpleasant position of defending criticism. If the criticism is honest,
objective, constructive, and comprehensive, no defense should be necessary.
• If part of the critique is written, make certain that it is consistent with the oral portion.
Although, at times, a critique may seem like an evaluation, it is not. Both student and instructor should consider it as an
integral part of the lesson. It normally is a wrap-up of the lesson. A good critique closes the chapter on the lesson and sets
the stage for the next lesson.
Characteristics of an Effective Critique
In order to provide direction and raise the students’ level of performance, the critique must be factual and be aligned with
the completion standards of the lesson. This, of course, is because the critique is a part of the learning process. Some of the
requirements for an effective critique are shown in Figure 10-12.
The
Effective
Critique
Objective
Specific
Flexible
Acceptable
Thoughtful
Organized
Constructive
Comprehensive
Figure 10-12. Elements of an effective critique.
Objective—the effective critique is focused on student performance. It should be objective, and not reflect the personal
opinions, likes, dislikes, and biases of the instructor. If a critique is to be objective, it must be honest; it must be based on
the performance as it was, not as it could have been, or as the instructor and student wished that it had been.
Flexible—the instructor needs to examine the entire performance of a student and the context in which it is accomplished.
Sometimes a good student turns in a poor performance and a poor student turns in a good one. A friendly student may
suddenly become hostile, or a hostile student may suddenly become friendly and cooperative. The instructor must fit
the tone, technique, and content of the critique to the occasion, as well as the student. A critique should be designed and
executed so that the instructor can allow for variables. An effective critique is one that is flexible enough to satisfy the
requirements of the moment.
Acceptable—before students willingly accept their instructor’s criticism, they must first accept the instructor. Students
must have confidence in the instructor’s qualifications, teaching ability, sincerity, competence, and authority. If a critique is
presented fairly, with authority, conviction, sincerity, and from a position of recognizable competence, the student probably
accepts it as such. Instructors should not rely on their position to make a critique more acceptable to their students.
• Comprehensive—a comprehensive critique is not necessarily a long one, nor must it treat every aspect of the
performance in detail. The instructor must decide whether the greater benefit comes from a discussion of a few
major points or a number of minor points. The instructor might critique what most needs improvement, or only what
the student can reasonably be expected to improve. An effective critique covers strengths as well as weaknesses.
• Constructive—a critique is pointless unless the student profits from it. The instructor should give positive guidance
for correcting the fault and strengthening the weakness. Negative criticism that does not point toward improvement
or a higher level of performance should be omitted from a critique altogether.
• Organized—unless a critique follows some pattern of organization, a series of otherwise valid comments may lose
their impact. Almost any pattern is acceptable as long as it is logical and makes sense to the student as well as to the
instructor. An effective organizational pattern might be the sequence of the performance itself. Sometimes a critique
can profitably begin at the point where a demonstration failed and work backward through the steps that led to the
failure.
• Thoughtful—an effective critique reflects the instructor’s thoughtfulness toward the student’s need for self-esteem,
recognition, and approval from others. The instructor should never minimize the inherent dignity and importance
of the individual. Ridicule, anger, or fun at the expense of the student have no place in a critique. While being
straightforward and honest, the instructor should always respect the student’s personal feelings.
• Specific—the instructor’s comments and recommendations should be specific, rather than general. The student
needs to focus on something concrete. If the instructor has a clear, well-founded, and supportable idea in mind, it
should be expressed with firmness and authority in terms that cannot be misunderstood.
Evaluation
Whenever learning takes place, the result is a definable, observable, measurable change in behavior. The purpose of an
evaluation is to determine how a student is progressing in the course. Evaluation is concerned with defining, observing,
and measuring or judging this new behavior. Evaluation normally occurs before, during, and after instruction; it is an
integral part of the learning process. During instruction, some sort of evaluation is essential to determine what the student
is learning and how well they are learning it. The instructor’s evaluation may be the result of observations of the students’
overall performance, or it may be accomplished as either a spontaneous or planned evaluation, such as an oral quiz, written
test, or skill performance test. [Figure 10-13]
Evaluation
Knowledge Tests
Performance Tests
Oral Quizzes
Figure 10-13. There are three common types of evaluations that instructors may use.
Oral Quizzes
The most used means of evaluation is the direct or indirect oral questioning of the student by the instructor. Questions
may be loosely classified as fact questions and thought questions. The answer to a fact question is based on memory or
recall. This type of question usually concerns who, what, when, and where. Thought questions usually involve why or how,
and require the student to combine knowledge of facts with an ability to analyze situations, solve problems, and arrive at
conclusions. Proper quizzing by the instructor can have a number of desirable results.
Characteristics of Effective Questions
An effective oral quiz requires some preparation. The instructor should devise and write pertinent questions in advance.
One method is to place them in the lesson plan. Prepared questions merely serve as a framework, and as the lesson
progresses, should be supplemented by such impromptu questions as the instructor considers appropriate. To be effective,
questions must apply to the subject of instruction. Unless the question pertains strictly to the particular training being
conducted, it serves only to confuse the students and divert their thoughts to an unrelated subject. An effective question
should be brief and concise, but also clear and definite.
Effective questions must be adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the students. Effective questions
center on only one idea. A single question should be limited to who, what, when, where, how, or why, not a combination.
Effective questions must present a challenge to the students. Questions of suitable difficulty serve to stimulate learning.
Effective questions demand and deserve the use of proper English.
Answering Questions from Students
Responses to student questions must also conform with certain considerations if answering is to be an effective teaching
method. The question must be clearly understood by the instructor before an answer is attempted. The instructor should
display interest in the student’s question and frame an answer that is as direct and accurate as possible. After the instructor
completes a response, it should be determined whether or not the student’s request for information has been completely
answered, and if the student is satisfied with the answer.
Occasionally, a student asks a question that the instructor cannot answer. In such cases, the instructor should freely admit
not knowing the answer, but should promise to get the answer or, if practicable, offer to help the student look it up in
available references.
Written Tests
As evaluation devices, written tests are only as good as the knowledge and proficiency of the test writer. This section is
intended to provide the flight instructor with only the basic concepts of written test design.
Characteristics of a Good Test
A test is a set of questions, problems, or exercises for determining whether a person has a particular knowledge or skill. A
test can consist of just one test item, but it usually consists of a number of test items. A test item measures a single objective
and calls for a single response. The test could be as simple as the correct answer to an essay question or as complex as
completing a knowledge or practical test. Regardless of the underlying purpose, effective tests share certain characteristics.
For a full list of these characteristics, refer to the Aviation Instructor’s Handbook.
Test Development
When testing aviation students, the instructor is usually concerned more with criterion-referenced testing than norm-
referenced testing. Criterion-referenced testing evaluates each student’s performance against a carefully written,
measurable, standard or criterion. Norm-referenced testing measures a student’s performance against the performance of
other students. There is little or no concern about the student’s performance in relation to the performance of other students.
The FAA knowledge and practical tests for pilots are all criterion referenced because in aviation training it is necessary to
measure student performance against a high standard of proficiency consistent with safety.
Pre-solo Knowledge Tests
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 61 requires the satisfactory completion of a pre-solo knowledge
test prior to solo flight. The pre-solo knowledge test is required to be administered, graded, and all incorrect answers
reviewed by the instructor providing the training prior to endorsing the student pilot log book. The regulation states that
the pre-solo knowledge test must include questions applicable to 14 CFR parts 61 and 91 and on the flight characteristics
and operational limitations of the make and model aircraft to be flown.
The content and number of test questions are to be determined by the flight instructor. An adequate sampling of the general
operating rules should be included. In addition, a sufficient number of specific questions should be asked to ensure the
student has the knowledge to safely operate the aircraft in the local environment.
Specific procedures for developing test questions are covered in the Aviation Instructor’s Handbook, but a review of some
items as they apply to the pre-solo knowledge test are in order. Though selection-type (usually referred to as multiple-
choice) test items are easier to grade, it is recommended that supply-type (or “fill in the blank”) test items be used for the
portions of the pre-solo knowledge test where specific knowledge is to be tested. One problem with supply-type test items
is difficulty in assigning the appropriate grade.
Since solo flight requires a thorough working knowledge of the different conditions likely to be encountered on the
solo flight, it is important that the test properly evaluate this area. In this way, the instructor can see any areas that are
not adequately understood and can then cover them in the review of the test. Selection-type test items do not allow the
instructor to evaluate the student’s knowledge beyond the immediate scope of the test items. The supply-type test item
measures much more adequately the knowledge of the student, and lends itself very well to pre-solo testing.
The instructor must keep a record of the test results for at least three (3) years, as required by the provisions of 14 CFR part
61, section 61.189. The record should at least include the date, name of the student, and the results of the test.
Performance Tests
The flight instructor does not administer the practical test for a pilot certificate. Flight instructors do get involved with the
same skill or performance testing that is measured in these tests. Performance testing is desirable for evaluating training
that involves an operation, a procedure, or a process. The job of the instructor is to prepare the student to take these tests.
Therefore, each element of the practical test has been evaluated prior to an applicant taking the practical exam.
The purpose of the practical test standards (PTS)/ Airman Certification Standards (ACS) is to delineate the standards
by which FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners conduct tests for ratings and certificates. The standards are
in accordance with the requirements of 14 CFR parts 61 and 91 and other FAA publications including the Aeronautical
Information Manual and pertinent advisory circulars and handbooks. The objective of the PTS/ACS is to ensure the
certification of pilots at a high level of performance and proficiency, consistent with safety.
Since every task in the PTS/ACS may be covered on the check ride, the instructor must evaluate all of the tasks before
certifying the applicant to take the practical test. While this evaluation is not totally formal in nature, it should adhere to
criterion-referenced testing. Although the instructor should always train the student to the very highest level possible, the
evaluation of the student is only in relation to the standards listed in the PTS/ACS. The instructor, and the examiner, should
also keep in mind that the standards are set at a level that is already very high. They are not minimum standards and they
do not represent a floor of acceptability. In other words, the standards are the acceptable level that must be met and there
are no requirements to exceed them.
Planning Instructional Activities
Any instructional activity must be well planned and organized if it is to proceed in an effective manner. Much of the basic
planning necessary for the flight instructor is provided by the knowledge and proficiency requirements published in 14
CFR, approved school syllabi, and the various texts, manuals, and training courses available. This section reviews the
planning required by the instructor as it relates to four key topics—course of training, blocks of learning, training syllabus,
and lesson plans.
Course of Training
In education, a course of training may be defined as a complete series of studies leading to attainment of a specific goal.
The goal might be a certificate of completion, graduation, or an academic degree. For example, a student pilot may enroll
in a private pilot certificate course, and upon completion of all course requirements, be awarded a graduation certificate.
Other terms closely associated with a course of training include curriculum, syllabus, and training course outline. In many
cases, these terms are used interchangeably, but there are important differences.