3-3
Twist grip throttle
Increasing the throttle increases
manifold pressure and rpm
Lowering the collective pitch
decreases manifold pressure
and increases rpm
Raising the collective pitch
increases manifold pressure and
decreases rpm
Reducing the throttle decreases
manifold pressure and rpm
Solutionand manifold
pressure isif rpm is
HIGH
LOW
LOW
LOW
LOW
HIGH
HIGH
HIGH
Cyclic pitch control
Cyclic pitch control
Figure 3-2. A twist grip throttle is usually mounted on the end of
the collective lever. The throttles on some turbine helicopters are
mounted on the overhead panel or on the floor in the cockpit.
Figure 3-4. The cyclic pitch control may be mounted vertically
between the pilot’s knees or on a teetering bar from a single cyclic
located in the center of the helicopter. The cyclic can pivot in all
directions.
Figure 3-3. Relationship between rpm, manifold pressure, collective,
and throttle.
Some helicopters do not have correlators or governors and
require coordination of all collective and throttle movements.
When the collective is raised, the throttle must be increased;
when the collective is lowered, the throttle must be decreased.
As with any aircraft control, large adjustments of either
collective pitch or throttle should be avoided. All corrections
should be made through the use of smooth pressure.
In piston helicopters, the collective pitch is the primary control
for manifold pressure, and the throttle is the primary control
for rpm. However, the collective pitch control also influences
rpm, and the throttle also influences manifold pressure;
therefore, each is considered to be a secondary control of the
other’s function. Both the tachometer (rpm indicator) and
the manifold pressure gauge must be analyzed to determine
which control to use. Figure 3-3 illustrates this relationship.
Cyclic Pitch Control
The cyclic pitch control (or simply “cyclic”) is usually
projected upward from the cockpit floor, between the
pilot’s legs or between the two pilot seats in some models.
[Figure 3-4] This primary flight control allows the pilot to fly
the helicopter in any direction of travel: forward, rearward,
left, and right. As discussed in Chapter 2, Aerodynamics
of Flight, the total lift force is always perpendicular to the
tip-path plane of the main rotor. The purpose of the cyclic
pitch control is to tilt the tip-path plane in the direction of
the desired horizontal direction. The cyclic controls the
rotor disk tilt versus the horizon, which directs the rotor disk
thrust to enable the pilot to control the direction of travel of
the helicopter.
The rotor disk tilts in the same direction the cyclic pitch control
is moved. If the cyclic is moved forward, the rotor disk tilts
forward; if the cyclic is moved aft, the disk tilts aft, and so on.
Because the rotor disk acts like a gyro, the mechanical linkages
for the cyclic control rods are rigged in such a way that they
3-4
Figure 3-5. Antitorque pedals compensate for changes in torque
and control heading in a hover.
decrease the pitch angle of the rotor blade approximately
90° before it reaches the direction of cyclic displacement
and increase the pitch angle of the rotor blade approximately
90° after it passes the direction of displacement. An increase
in pitch angle increases AOA; a decrease in pitch angle
decreases AOA. For example, if the cyclic is moved forward,
the AOA decreases as the rotor blade passes the right side of
the helicopter and increases on the left side. This results in
maximum downward deflection of the rotor blade in front
of the helicopter and maximum upward deflection behind it,
causing the rotor disk to tilt forward.
Antitorque Pedals
The antitorque pedals, located on the cabin floor by the pilot’s
feet, control the pitch and therefore the thrust of the tail rotor
blades or other antitorque system. See Chapter 5, Helicopter
Components, Sections, and Systems, for a discussion on
these other systems. [Figure 3-5] Newton’s Third Law was
discussed in Chapter 2, General Aerodynamics, stating that
for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
This law applies to the helicopter fuselage and its rotation
in the opposite direction of the main rotor blades unless
counteracted and controlled. To make flight possible and
to compensate for this torque, most helicopter designs
incorporate an antitorque rotor or tail rotor. The antitorque
pedals allow the pilot to control the pitch angle of the tail
rotor blades, which in forward flight puts the helicopter in
longitudinal trim and, while at a hover, enables the pilot to
turn the helicopter 360°. The antitorque pedals are connected
to the pitch change mechanism on the tail rotor gearbox and
allow the pitch angle on the tail rotor blades to be increased
or decreased.
Heading Control
The tail rotor is used to control the heading of the helicopter
while hovering or when making hovering turns, as well as
counteracting the torque of the main rotor. Hovering turns
are commonly referred to as “pedal turns.”
At speeds above translational lift, the pedals are used to
compensate for torque to put the helicopter in longitudinal
trim, so that coordinated flight can be maintained. The cyclic
control is used to change heading by making a turn to the
desired direction.
The thrust of the tail rotor depends on the pitch angle of the
tail rotor blades. This pitch angle can be positive, negative,
or zero. A positive pitch angle tends to move the tail to the
right. A negative pitch angle moves the tail to the left, while
no thrust is produced with a zero pitch angle. The maximum
positive pitch angle of the tail rotor is generally greater than
the maximum negative pitch angle available. This is because
the primary purpose of the tail rotor is to counteract the torque
of the main rotor. The capability for tail rotors to produce
thrust to the left (negative pitch angle) is necessary, because
during autorotation the drag of the transmission tends to yaw
the nose to the left, or in the same direction the main rotor
is turning.
From the neutral position, applying right pedal causes the
nose of the helicopter to yaw right and the tail to swing to
the left. Pressing on the left pedal has the opposite effect:
the nose of the helicopter yaws to the left and the tail swings
right. [Figure 3-6]
With the antitorque pedals in the neutral position, the tail rotor
has a medium positive pitch angle. In medium positive pitch,
the tail rotor thrust approximately equals the torque of the
main rotor during cruise flight, so the helicopter maintains
a constant heading in level flight.
A vertical fin or stabilizer is used in many single-rotor
helicopters to help aid in heading control. The fin is designed
to optimize directional stability in flight with a zero tail rotor
thrust setting. The size of the fin is crucial to this design. If
the surface is too large, the tail rotor thrust may be blocked.
Heading control would be more difficult at slower airspeeds
and at a hover and the vertical fin would then weathervane.
Helicopters that are designed with tandem rotors do not have
an antitorque rotor. The helicopter is designed with both
rotor systems rotating in opposite directions to counteract the
torque rather than a tail rotor. Directional antitorque pedals
3-5
Tail moves
Tail moves
Negative or Low Positive Pitch Medium Positive Pitch High Positive Pitch
Figure 3-6. Tail rotor pitch angle and thrust in relation to pedal positions during cruising flight.
are used for directional control of the aircraft while in flight,
as well as while taxiing with the forward gear off the ground.
In intermeshing rotor systems, which are a set of two rotors
turning in opposite directions with each rotor mast mounted
on the helicopter with a slight angle to the other so that
the blades intermesh without colliding, and a coaxial rotor
systems, which are a pair of rotors mounted one above the
other on the same shaft and turning in opposite directions, the
heading pedals control the heading of the helicopter while at
a hover by imbalancing torque between the rotors, allowing
for the torque to turn the helicopter.
Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced the pilot to the major flight controls
and how they work in relation to each other. The chapter also
correlates the use of flight controls and aerodynamics and
how the two work together to make flight possible.
3-6
4-1
Introduction
This chapter discusses the components, sections, and systems
found on most modern helicopters. Helicopters come in a
variety of sizes and shapes, but most share the same major
components. The chapter introduces the major components/
sections of the helicopter and the systems that correlate
with each. Knowing how the components and systems
work on the helicopter enables the pilot to more easily
recognize malfunctions and possible emergency situations.
Understanding the relationship of these systems allows the
pilot to make an informed decision and take the appropriate
corrective action should a problem arise.
Airframe
The airframe, or fundamental structure, of a helicopter can be
made of either metal, wood, or composite materials, or some
combination of the two. Typically, a composite component
consists of many layers of fiber-impregnated resins, bonded
to form a smooth panel. Tubular and sheet metal substructures
are usually made of aluminum, though stainless steel or
titanium are sometimes used in areas subject to higher
stress or heat. Airframe design encompasses engineering,
aerodynamics, materials technology, and manufacturing
methods to achieve favorable balances of performance,
reliability, and cost. [Figure 4-1]
Helicopter Components,
Sections, and Systems
Chapter 4
4-2
Main rotor system
Landing gear
Tail rotor system
Airframe
Fuselage
Transmission
Powerplant
Figure 4-1. The major components of a helicopter are the airframe, fuselage, landing gear, powerplant, transmission, main rotor
system,and tail rotor system.
Fuselage
The fuselage, the outer core of the airframe, is an aircraft’s
main body section that houses the cabin that holds the crew,
passengers, and cargo. Helicopter cabins have a variety of
seating arrangements. Most have the pilot seated on the right
side, although there are some with the pilot seated on the
left side or center. The fuselage also houses the engine, the
transmission, avionics, flight controls, and the powerplant.
[Figure 4-1]
Main Rotor System
The rotor system is the rotating part of a helicopter which
generates lift. The rotor consists of a mast, hub, and rotor
blades. The mast is a hollow cylindrical metal shaft which
extends upwards from and is driven and sometimes supported
by the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment
point for the rotor blades called the hub. The rotor blades are
then attached to the hub by any number of different methods.
Main rotor systems are classified according to how the main
rotor blades are attached and move relative to the main rotor
hub. There are three basic classifications: semirigid, rigid,
or fully articulated. Some modern rotor systems, such as the
bearingless rotor system, use an engineered combination of
these types.
Semirigid Rotor System
A semirigid rotor system is usually composed of two blades
that are rigidly mounted to the main rotor hub. The main rotor
hub is free to tilt with respect to the main rotor shaft on what
is known as a teetering or flapping hinge. This allows the
blades to flap together as a unit. As one blade flaps up, the
other flaps down. Since there is no vertical drag hinge, lead/
lag forces are absorbed and mitigated by blade bending. The
semirigid rotor is also capable of feathering, which means that
the pitch angle of the blade changes. This is made possible
by the feathering hinge. [Figure 4-2]
If the semirigid rotor system is an underslung rotor, the center
of gravity (CG) is below where it is attached to the mast. This
underslung mounting is designed to align the blade’s center
of mass with a common flapping hinge so that both blades’
centers of mass vary equally in distance from the center of
rotation during flapping. The rotational speed of the system
tends to change, but this is restrained by the inertia of the
engine and flexibility of the drive system. Only a moderate
amount of stiffening at the blade root is necessary to handle
this restriction. Simply put, underslinging effectively
eliminates geometric imbalance. [Figure 4-3]
4-3
Static stops
Pitch horn
Main rotor mast
Feathering hinge
Teetering hinge
Figure 4-2. The teetering hinge allows the main rotor hub to tilt, and
the feathering hinge enables the pitch angle of the blades to change.
Center of gravity
Center of gravity
Mast axis
Figure 4-3. With an underslung rotor, the center of gravity (CG) remains in the same approximate location relative to the mast before
and after rotor tilt.
The underslung rotor system mitigates the lead/lag forces by
mounting the blades slightly lower than the usual plane of
rotation, so the lead/lag forces are minimized. As the blades
cone upward, the center of pressures of the blades are almost
in the same plane as the hub. Whatever stresses are remaining
bend the blades for compliance.
Helicopters with semirigid rotors are vulnerable to a
condition known as mast bumping which can cause the rotor
flap stops to shear the mast. The mechanical design of the
semirigid rotor system dictates downward flapping of the
blades must have some physical limit. Mast bumping is the
result of excessive rotor flapping. Each rotor system design
has a maximum flapping angle. If flapping exceeds the design
value, the static stop will contact the mast. The static stop is
a component of the main rotor providing limited movement
of strap fittings and a contoured surface between the mast
and hub. It is the violent contact between the static stop and
the mast during flight that causes mast damage or separation.
This contact must be avoided at all costs.
Mast bumping is directly related to how much the blade
system flaps. In straight and level flight, blade flapping is
minimal, perhaps 2° under usual flight conditions. Flapping
angles increase slightly with high forward speeds, at low
rotor rpm, at high-density altitudes, at high gross weights, and
when encountering turbulence. Maneuvering the aircraft in a
sideslip or during low-speed flight at extreme CG positions
can induce larger flapping angles.
Rigid Rotor System
The rigid rotor system shown in Figure 4-4 is mechanically
simple, but structurally complex because operating loads
must be absorbed in bending rather than through hinges. In
this system, the blade roots are rigidly attached to the rotor
hub. Rigid rotor systems tend to behave like fully articulated
systems through aerodynamics, but lack flapping or lead/
lag hinges. Instead, the blades accommodate these motions
by bending. They cannot flap or lead/lag, but they can be
feathered. As advancements in helicopter aerodynamics
4-4
Good control
response
Simple, easy to
hangar due to two
blades
Simple design,
crisp response
High aerodynamic
drag. More complex,
greater cost.
Reaction to control
input not as quick
as articulated head.
Vibration can be
higher than multi-
bladed articulated
systems.
Higher vibration than
articulated rotor.
DisadvantagesSystem Type Advantages
Articulated
Semirigid
(Teetering,
Underslung, or
See-Saw)
Rigid
Figure 4-5. Differences in handling between the types of rotor
systems.
Main rotor blades
Main rotor hub
Blade pitch horns
Main rotor blades
Main rotor mast
Pitch change links
Figure 4-4. Four-blade hingeless (rigid) main rotor. Rotor blades are comprised of glass fiber reinforced material. The hub is a single
piece of forged rigid titanium.
and materials continue to improve, rigid rotor systems may
become more common because the system is fundamentally
easier to design and offers the best properties of both
semirigid and fully articulated systems.
The rigid rotor system is very responsive and is usually
not susceptible to mast bumping like the semirigid systems
because the rotor hubs are mounted solid to the main rotor
mast. This allows the rotor and fuselage to move together
as one entity and eliminates much of the oscillation usually
present in the other rotor systems. Other advantages of the rigid
rotor include a reduction in the weight and drag of the rotor
hub and a larger flapping arm, which significantly reduces
control inputs. Without the complex hinges, the rotor system
becomes much more reliable and easier to maintain than the
other rotor configurations. A disadvantage of this system is
the quality of ride in turbulent or gusty air. Because there are
no hinges to help absorb the larger loads, vibrations are felt
in the cabin much more than with other rotor head designs.
There are several variations of the basic three rotor head
designs. The bearingless rotor system is closely related to
the articulated rotor system but has no bearings or hinges.
This design relies on the structure of blades and hub to absorb
stresses. The main difference between the rigid rotor system
and the bearingless system is that the bearingless system has
no feathering bearing—the material inside the cuff is twisted
by the action of the pitch change arm. Nearly all bearingless
rotor hubs are made of fiber-composite materials. The
differences in handling between the types of rotor system
are summarized in Figure 4-5.
Fully Articulated Rotor System
Fully articulated rotor systems allow each blade to lead/lag
(move back and forth in plane), flap (move up and down
about an inboard mounted hinge) independent of the other
blades, and feather (rotate about the pitch axis to change lift).
[Figures 4-6 and 4-7] Each of these blade motions is related
4-5
Rotor blade
Lagging positionLeading position
Rotor hub Center of rotation
Lead/lag hinge
(Vertical hinge)
Pure Radial Position
Lead/lag or drag hinge
Lagging position
Leading position
Figure 4-6. Lead/lag hinge allows the rotor blade to move back
and forth in plane.
Figure 4-7. Fully articulated flapping hub. Figure 4-8. Fully articulated rotor blade with flapping hinge.
to the others. Fully articulated rotor systems are found on
helicopters with more than two main rotor blades.
As the rotor spins, each blade responds to inputs from the
control system to enable aircraft control. The center of lift
on the whole rotor system moves in response to these inputs
to effect pitch, roll, and upward motion. The magnitude of
this lift force is based on the collective input, which changes
pitch on all blades in the same direction at the same time. The
location of this lift force is based on the pitch and roll inputs
from the pilot. Therefore, the feathering angle of each blade
(proportional to its own lifting force) changes as it rotates
with the rotor, hence the name “cyclic control.”
As the lift on a given blade increases, it tends to flap upwards.
The flapping hinge for the blade permits this motion and is
balanced by the centrifugal force of the weight of the blade,
which tries to keep it in the horizontal plane. [Figure 4-8]
Either way, some motion must be accommodated. The
centrifugal force is nominally constant; however, the flapping
force is affected by the severity of the maneuver (rate of
climb, forward speed, aircraft gross weight). As the blade
flaps, its CG changes. This changes the local moment of
inertia of the blade with respect to the rotor system and it
speeds up or slows down with respect to the rest of the blades
and the whole rotor system. This is accommodated by the
lead/lag or drag hinge, shown in Figure 4-9, and is easier to
visualize with the classical ‘ice skater doing a spin’ image.
As the skater moves her arms in, she spins faster because her
inertia changes but her total energy remains constant (neglect
friction for purposes of this explanation). Conversely, as
her arms extend, her spin slows. This is also known as the
conservation of angular momentum. An in-plane damper
typically moderates lead/lag motion.
Following a single blade through a single rotation beginning
at some neutral position, as load increases from increased
feathering, it flaps up and leads forward. As it continues
4-6
Figure 4-10. Tandem rotor heads.
Pitch horn
Pitch change axis (feathering)
Drag hingeFlapping hinge
Damper
Figure 4-9. Drag hinge.
around, it flaps down and lags backward. At the lowest
point of load, it is at its lowest flap angle and also at its most
‘rearward’ lag position. Because the rotor is a large, rotating
mass, it behaves somewhat like a gyroscope. The effect of
this is that a control input is usually realized on the attached
body at a position 90° prior to the control input displacement
in the axis of rotation. This is accounted for by the designers
through placement of the control input to the rotor system
so that a forward input of the cyclic control stick results in a
nominally forward motion of the aircraft. The effect is made
transparent to the pilot.
Older hinge designs relied on conventional metal bearings. By
basic geometry, this precludes a coincident flapping and lead/
lag hinge and is cause for recurring maintenance. Newer rotor
systems use elastomeric bearings, arrangements of rubber
and steel that can permit motion in two axes. Besides solving
some of the above-mentioned kinematic issues, these bearings
are usually in compression, can be readily inspected, and
eliminate the maintenance associated with metallic bearings.
Elastomeric bearings are naturally fail-safe, and their wear
is gradual and visible. The metal-to-metal contact of older
bearings and the need for lubrication is eliminated in this design.
Tandem Rotor
Tandem rotor (sometimes referred to as dual rotor)
helicopters have two large horizontal rotor assemblies; a twin
rotor system, instead of one main assembly, and a smaller
tail rotor. [Figure 4-10] Single rotor helicopters need an
anti-torque system to neutralize the twisting momentum
produced by the single large rotor. Tandem rotor helicopters,
however, use counter-rotating rotors, with each canceling
out the other’s torque. Counter-rotating rotor blades will not
collide with and destroy each other if they flex into the other
rotor’s pathway. This configuration also has the advantage
of being able to hold more weight with shorter blades, since
there are two sets. Also, all of the power from the engines can
be used for lift, whereas a single rotor helicopter uses power
to counter the torque.
Coaxial Rotors
A coaxial rotor system is a pair of rotors mounted on the same
shaft but turning in opposite directions. This design eliminates
the need for a tail rotor or other antitorque mechanisms, and
since the blades turn in opposite directions, the effects of
dissymmetry of lift are avoided. The main disadvantage
of coaxial rotors is the increased mechanical complexity
of the rotor system. Numerous Russian helicopters, such
as the Kaman Ka-31 and Ka-50, along with the Sikorsky
experimental X2 use a coaxial rotor design.
Intermeshing Rotors
An intermeshing rotor system is a set of two rotors turning
in the opposite directions with each rotor mast mounted on
the helicopter with a slight angle, so the blades intermesh
without colliding. This design also eliminates the need for an
antitorque system, which provides more engine power for lift.
However, neither rotor lifts directly vertical which reduces
each rotor’s efficiency. The Kaman HH-43, which was used
by the USAF in a firefighting role and the Kaman K-MAX
are examples of an intermeshing rotor systems.
Swash Plate Assembly
The purpose of the swash plate is to convert stationary
control inputs from the pilot into rotating inputs which can be
connected to the rotor blades or control surfaces. It consists
of two main parts: stationary swash plate and rotating swash
plate. [Figure 4-11]
4-7
Blade rotation
Blade rotation
Tail rotor thrust
to compensate
for torque
Torque
Torque
Rotating swash plate
Control rod
Stationary swash plate
Pitch link
Drive link
Inner and outer parts turning at same rpm
Outer turning much faster than inner
Figure 4-11. Stationary and rotating swash plate.
Figure 4-13. Antitorque rotor produces thrust to oppose torque.
Figure 4-12. Freewheeling unit in normal drive position and
freewheeling position. Note that in the top example, the engine
output shaft (inner part) drives the rotor shaft (outer part) at the
same speed (normal flight). In the bottom example, the rotor shaft
(outer part) breaks free under autorotation, as it turns faster than
the driver shaft (inner part).
changes, or to make heading changes while hovering. Most
helicopters drive the tail rotor shaft from the transmission
to ensure tail rotor rotation (and hence control) in the event
that the engine quits. Usually, negative antitorque thrust is
needed in autorotations to overcome transmission friction.
The stationary swash plate is mounted around the main rotor
mast and connected to the cyclic and collective controls by a
series of pushrods. It is restrained from rotating by an anti-
drive link but can tilt in all directions and move vertically.
The rotating swash plate is mounted to the stationary swash
plate by means of a uniball sleeve. It is connected to the mast
by drive links and must rotate in constant relationship with
the main rotor mast. Both swash plates tilt and slide up and
down as one unit. The rotating swash plate is connected to
the pitch horns by the pitch links.
Freewheeling Unit
Since lift in a helicopter is provided by rotating airfoils,
these airfoils must be free to rotate if the engine fails. The
freewheeling unit automatically disengages the engine from
the main rotor when engine revolutions per minute (rpm)
is less than main rotor rpm. [Figure 4-12] This allows the
main rotor and tail rotor to continue turning at normal in-
flight speeds. The most common freewheeling unit assembly
consists of a one-way sprag clutch located between the engine
and main rotor transmission. This is usually in the upper
pulley in a piston helicopter or mounted on the accessory
gearbox in a turbine helicopter. When the engine is driving
the rotor, inclined surfaces in the sprag clutch force rollers
against an outer drum. This prevents the engine from
exceeding transmission rpm. If the engine fails, the rollers
move inward, allowing the outer drum to exceed the speed
of the inner portion. The transmission can then exceed the
speed of the engine. In this condition, engine speed is less
than that of the drive system, and the helicopter is in an
autorotative state.
Antitorque System
Helicopters with a single, main rotor system require a
separate antitorque system. This is most often accomplished
through a variable pitch, antitorque rotor or tail rotor.
[Figure 4-13] Pilots vary the thrust of the antitorque system to
maintain directional control whenever the main rotor torque
4-8
Air jet
Downwash
Lift
Rotating nozzle
Main rotor wake
Air intake
Figure 4-15. While in a hover, Coanda effect supplies approximately
two-thirds of the lift necessary to maintain directional control.
The rest is created by directing the thrust from the controllable
rotating nozzle.
Figure 4-14. Fenestron or “fan-in-tail” antitorque system. This design
provides an improved margin of safety during ground operations.
Fenestron
Another form of antitorque system is the Fenestron or “fan-
in-tail” design. This system uses a series of rotating blades
shrouded within a vertical tail. Because the blades are located
within a circular duct, they are less likely to come into contact
with people or objects. [Figure 4-14]
NOTAR®
Using the natural characteristics of helicopter aerodynamics,
the NOTAR ® antitorque system provides safe, quiet,
responsive, foreign object damage (FOD) resistant directional
control. The enclosed variable-pitch composite blade fan
produces a low pressure, high volume of ambient air to
pressurize the composite tailboom. The air is expelled
through two slots which run the length of the tailboom on the
right side, causing a boundary-layer control called the Coanda
effect. The result is that the tailboom becomes a “wing,”
flying in the downwash of the rotor system, producing up to
60 percent of the antitorque required in a hover. The balance
of the directional control is accomplished by a rotating direct
jet thruster. In forward flight, the vertical stabilizers provide
the majority of the antitorque; however, directional control
remains a function of the direct jet thruster. The NOTAR ®
antitorque system eliminates some of the mechanical
disadvantages of a tail rotor, including long drive shafts,
hanger bearings, intermediate gearboxes and 90° gearboxes.
[Figure 4-15]
Antitorque Drive Systems
The antitorque drive system consists of an antitorque drive
shaft and a antitorque gearbox mounted at the end of the tail
boom. The drive shaft may consist of one long shaft or a
series of shorter shafts connected at both ends with flexible
couplings. This allows the drive shaft to flex with the tail
boom. The tail rotor gearbox provides a right-angle drive
for the tail rotor and may also include gearing to adjust the
output to optimum tail rotor rpm. [Figure 4-16] Tail rotors
may also have an intermediate gearbox to turn the power up
a pylon or vertical fin.
Engines
Reciprocating Engines
Reciprocating engines, also called piston engines, are
generally used in smaller helicopters. Most training
helicopters use reciprocating engines because they are
relatively simple and inexpensive to operate. Refer to the
Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge for a detailed
explanation and illustrations of the piston engine.
Turbine Engines
Turbine engines are more powerful and are used in a wide
variety of helicopters. They produce a tremendous amount
of power for their size but are generally more expensive
to operate. The turbine engine used in helicopters operates
differently from those used in airplane applications. In most
applications, the exhaust outlets simply release expended
gases and do not contribute to the forward motion of the
helicopter. Approximately 75 percent of the incoming airflow
is used to cool the engine.
The gas turbine engine mounted on most helicopters is
made up of a compressor, combustion chamber, turbine,
and accessory gearbox assembly. The compressor draws
filtered air into the plenum chamber and compresses it.
Common type filters are centrifugal swirl tubes where debris
is ejected outward and blown overboard prior to entering
the compressor, or engine barrier filters (EBF), similar to
the K&N filter element used in automotive applications.
4-9
Output Shaft
Air inlet
Centrifugal Compression Section Turbine Section Combustion SectionGearbox
Section
Inlet air
Compressor discharge air
Combustion gases
Exhaust gases
Combustion liner
Exhaust air outlet
Compressor rotor
Fuel nozzle
Igniter plug
N1 RotorN2 Rotor Stator
Gear
Main rotor gearbox
Drive belts
Input drives sun wheel
Tail rotor drive shaft
Power and accessory gearbox
Main drive shaft with freewheeling unit
Tail rotor gearbox
Tail rotor
Engine
Figure 4-16. The tail rotor driveshaft is connected to both the main transmission and the tail rotor transmission.
Figure 4-17. Many helicopters use a turboshaft engine as shown above to drive the main transmission and rotor systems. The main
difference between a turboshaft and a turbojet engine is that most of the energy produced by the expanding gases is used to drive a
turbine rather than producing thrust through the expulsion of exhaust gases.
Although this design significantly reduces the ingestion
of foreign objects into the engine, it is important for pilots
to be aware of how much debris is actually being filtered.
Operating in the sand, dust, or even in grassy type materials
can choke an engine in just minutes. The compressed air is
directed to the combustion section through discharge tubes
where atomized fuel is injected into it. The fuel/air mixture
is ignited and allowed to expand. This combustion gas is then
forced through a series of turbine wheels causing them to
turn. These turbine wheels provide power to both the engine
compressor and the accessory gearbox. Depending on model
and manufacturer, the rpm can vary from 20,000 to 51,600.
Power is provided to the main rotor and tail rotor systems
through the freewheeling unit which is attached to the
accessory gearbox power output gear shaft. The combustion
gas is finally expelled through an exhaust outlet. The
temperature of gas is measured at different locations and is
referenced differently by each manufacturer. Some common
terms are inter-turbine temperature (ITT), exhaust gas
temperature (EGT), measured gas temperature (MGT), or
turbine outlet temperature (TOT). TOT is used throughout
this discussion for simplicity. [Figure 4-17]
4-10
Compressor
The compressor may consist of an axial compressor, a
centrifugal compressor, or combination of the two.
An axial compressor consists of two main elements: the rotor
and the stator. The rotor consists of a number of blades fixed
on a rotating spindle and resembles a fan. As the rotor turns,
air is drawn inward. Stator vanes are arranged in fixed rows
between the rotor blades and act as a diffuser at each stage
to decrease air velocity and increase air pressure. There may
be a number of rows of rotor blades and stator vanes. Each
row constitutes a pressure stage, and the number of stages
depends on the amount of air and pressure rise required for
the particular engine.
A centrifugal compressor consists of an impeller, diffuser,
and a manifold. The impeller, which is a forged disc with
integral blades, rotates at a high speed to draw air in and
expel it at an accelerated rate. The air then passes through
the diffuser, which slows the air down. When the velocity
of the air is slowed, static pressure increases, resulting
in compressed, high pressure air. The high-pressure air
then passes through the compressor manifold where it is
distributed to the combustion chamber via discharge tubes.
If the airflow through the compressor is disturbed, a
condition called surge, or compressor stall, may take effect.
This phenomenon is a periodic stalling of the compressor
blades. When this occurs, the pressure at the compressor
is reduced and the combustion pressure may cause reverse
flow into the compressor output. As the airflow through
the compressor is reduced, the air pressure then increases
temporarily correcting the condition until it occurs again.
This is felt throughout the airframe as vibrations and is
accompanied by power loss and an increase in TOT as the
fuel control adds fuel in an attempt to maintain power. This
condition may be corrected by activating the bleed air system
which vents excess pressure to the atmosphere and allows
a larger volume of air to enter the compressor to unstall the
compressor blades.
Combustion Chamber
Unlike a piston engine, the combustion in a turbine engine is
continuous. An igniter plug serves only to ignite the fuel/air
mixture when starting the engine. Once the fuel/air mixture
is ignited, it continues to burn as long as the fuel/air mixture
continues to be present. If there is an interruption of fuel, air,
or both, combustion ceases. This is known as a “flameout,”
and the engine must be restarted or re-lit. Some helicopters
are equipped with auto-relight, which automatically activates
the igniters to start combustion if the engine flames out.
Turbine
The two-stage turbine section consists of a series of turbine
wheels that are used to drive the compressor section and
other components attached to the accessory gearbox. Both
stages may consist of one or more turbine wheels. The first
stage is usually referred to as the gas producer (N1 or NG)
while the second stage is commonly called the power turbine
(N2 or NP). (The letter N is used to denote rotational speed.)
If the first and second stage turbines are mechanically
coupled to each other, the system is said to be a fixed turbine
(turboshaft). These engines share a common shaft, which
means the first and second stage turbines, and thus the
compressor and output shaft, are connected.
On most turbine assemblies used in helicopters, the first
stage and second stage turbines are not mechanically
connected to each other. Rather, they are mounted on
independent shafts, one inside the other, and can turn
freely with respect to each other. This is referred to as a
“free turbine.” When a free turbine engine is running, the
combustion gases pass through the first stage turbine (N1)
to drive the compressor and other components, and then past
the independent second stage turbine (N2), which turns the
power and accessory gearbox to drive the output shaft, as
well as other miscellaneous components.
Accessory Gearbox
The accessory gearbox of the engine houses all of the
necessary gears to drive the numerous components of the
helicopter. Power is provided to the accessory gearbox
through the independent shafts connected to the N1 and
N2 turbine wheels. The N1 stage drives the components
necessary to complete the turbine cycle, making the engine
self-sustaining. Common components driven by the N1
stage are the compressor, oil pump, fuel pump, and starter/
generator. The N2 stage is dedicated to driving the main
rotor and tail rotor drive systems and other accessories such
as generators, alternators, and air conditioning.
Transmission System
The transmission system transfers power from the engine to
the main rotor, tail rotor, and other accessories during normal
flight conditions. The main components of the transmission
system are the main rotor transmission, tail rotor drive
system, clutch, and freewheeling unit. The freewheeling unit
or autorotative clutch allows the main rotor transmission to
drive the tail rotor drive shaft during autorotation. In some
helicopter designs, such as the Bell BH-206, the freewheeling
unit is located in the accessory gearbox. Because it is part
of the transmission system, the transmission lubricates it to
4-11
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
E R
% RPM
% RPM
NR NP
120
110
105
100
95
90
80
70
60
40
0
RPM
X100
ROTOR
TURBINE
2
3
4
51
0
25
30
5
10
40
20
15
35
R
T
ROTOR
PEEVER
TURBINEA
PERCENT
RPM
0
70
30
10
40
110
60
50
20
80
90
100
120
R
T
Figure 4-18. Various types of dual-needle tachometers.
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
E R
% RPM
Figure 4-19. A “split” or divided needle condition is a result of a
sudden loss of engine power.
ensure free rotation. Helicopter transmissions are normally
lubricated and cooled with their own oil supply. A sight gauge
is provided to check the oil level. Some transmissions have
chip detectors located in the sump, to detect loose pieces of
metal. These detectors are wired to warning lights located
on the pilot’s instrument panel that illuminate in the event
of an internal problem. Some chip detectors on modern
helicopters have a “burn off” capability and attempt to correct
the situation without pilot action. If the problem cannot be
corrected on its own, the pilot must refer to the emergency
procedures for that particular helicopter.
Main Rotor Transmission
The primary purpose of the main rotor transmission is
to reduce engine output rpm to optimum rotor rpm. This
reduction is different for the various helicopters. As an
example, suppose the engine rpm of a specific helicopter
is 2,700. A rotor speed of 450 rpm would require a 6:1
reduction. A 9:1 reduction would mean the rotor would turn
at 300 rpm.
Dual Tachometers
Most helicopters use a dual-needle tachometer or a vertical
scale instrument to show both engine and rotor rpm or a
percentage of engine and rotor rpm. The rotor rpm indicator is
used during clutch engagement to monitor rotor acceleration,
and in autorotation to maintain rpm within prescribed limits.
It is vital to understand that rotor rpm is paramount, and that
engine rpm is secondary. If the rotor tachometer fails, rotor
rpm can still be determined indirectly by the engine rpm
during powered flight, because the engine drives the rotor at
a fixed, one-to-one ratio (by virtue of the sprag clutch). There
have been many accidents where the pilot responded to the
rotor rpm tachometer failure and entered into autorotation
while the engine was still operating.
Look closer at the markings on the gauges in Figure 4-18. All
gauges shown are dual tachometer gauges. The two on the
left have two needles each, one marked with the letter ‘T’
(turbine) the other marked with the letter ‘R’ (rotor). The
lower left gauge shows two arced areas within the same
needle location. In this case, both needles should be nearly
together or superimposed during normal operation. Note the
top left gauge shows two numerical arcs. The outer arc, with
larger numbers, applies one set of values to engine rpm. The
inner arc, or smaller numbers, represents a separate set of
values for rotor rpm. Normal operating limits are shown when
the needles are married or appear superimposed. The top
right gauge shows independent needles, focused toward the
middle of the gauge, with colored limitation areas respective
to the needle head. The left side represents engine operational
parameters; the right, rotor operational parameters.
In normal conditions when the rotor is coupled to the engine,
both needles move together in the same direction. However,
with a sudden loss in engine power the needles “split”
showing that the engine and rotor are no longer coupled as
the clutch has disconnected. [Figure 4-19]
Many newer aircraft have what is referred to as a glass
cockpit, meaning the instrumentation is digital and displayed
4-12
Upper pulley
V-Belts
Lower pulley
Figure 4-21. Idler or manual clutch.
Gearbox
Main transmission
To engine
Main rotor
Antitorque rotor
Figure 4-20. The main rotor transmission reduces engine output
rpm to optimum rotor rpm.
to the pilot on digital screens and vertical scale instruments.
The bottom right gauge in Figure 4-18 replicates a vertical
scale instrument. The dual tachometer shown displays rotor
rpm (NR) on the left and engine rpm (NP) on the right side
of the vertical scale. Corresponding color limits are present
for each component parameter.
Structural Design
In helicopters with horizontally mounted engines, another
purpose of the main rotor transmission is to change the
axis of rotation from the horizontal axis of the engine to the
vertical axis of the rotor shaft. [Figure 4-20] This differs
from airplanes, which have their propellers mounted directly
to the crankshaft or to a shaft that is geared to the crankshaft.
Maintaining main rotor rpm is essential for adequate lift.
RPM within normal limits produces adequate lift for normal
maneuvering. Therefore, it is imperative not only to know
the location of the tachometers, but also to understand the
information they provide. If rotor rpm is allowed to go below
normal limits, the outcome could be catastrophic.
Clutch
In a conventional airplane, the engine and propeller are
permanently connected. However, in a helicopter they are
not. Because of the greater weight of a rotor in relation to the
power of the engine, as compared to the weight of a propeller
and the power in an airplane, the rotor must be disconnected
from the engine when the starter is engaged. A clutch allows
the engine to be started and then gradually pick up the load
of the rotor.
Freewheeling turbine engines do not require a separate clutch
since the air coupling between the gas producer turbine and
the power (takeoff) turbine functions as an air clutch for
starting purposes. When the engine is started, there is little
resistance from the power turbine. This enables the gas-
producer turbine to accelerate to normal idle speed without
the load of the transmission and rotor system dragging it
down. As the gas pressure increases through the power
turbine, the rotor blades begin to turn, slowly at first and then
gradually accelerate to normal operating rpm.
On reciprocating and fixed turbine engines, a clutch is
required to enable engine start. Air, or windmilling starts,
are not possible. The two main types of clutches are the
centrifugal clutch and the idler or manual clutch.
How the clutch engages the main rotor system during engine
start differs between helicopter design. Piston-powered
helicopters have a means of engaging the clutch manually
just as a manual clutch in an automobile. This may be by
means of an electric motor that positions a pulley when the
engine is at the proper operating condition (oil temperature
and pressure in the appropriate range), but which is controlled
by a cockpit mounted switch.
Belt Drive Clutch
Some helicopters utilize a belt drive to transmit power from
the engine to the transmission. A belt drive consists of a lower
pulley attached to the engine, an upper pulley attached to the
transmission input shaft, a belt or a set of V-belts, and some
means of applying tension to the belts. The belts fit loosely
over the upper and lower pulley when there is no tension on
the belts. [Figure 4-21]
4-13
Fuel quantity
Fuel tank
FUEL SHOT OFF
LOW FUEL LEVEL
WARNING LIGHT
MIX
PULL LEAN
Carburetor
Throttle
Shut-off valve
Fuel strainer
Primer
Primer nozzle at cylinder
Figure 4-22. A typical gravity feed fuel system, in a helicopter with
a reciprocating engine, contains the components shown here.
Some aircraft utilize a clutch for starting. This allows the
engine to be started without requiring power to turn the
transmission. One advantage this concept has is that without
a load on the engine starting may be accomplished with
minimal throttle application. However, caution should also
be used during starting, since rapid or large throttle inputs
may cause overspeeds.
Once the engine is running, tension on the belts is gradually
increased. When the rotor and engine tachometer needles are
superimposed, the rotor and the engine are synchronized, and
the clutch is then fully engaged. Advantages of this system
include vibration isolation, simple maintenance. When the
clutch is not engaged, engines are very easy to overspeed,
resulting in costly inspections and maintenance. Power, or
throttle control, is very important in this phase of engine
operation.
Centrifugal Clutch
A centrifugal clutch is made up of an inner assembly and
an outer drum. The inner assembly, which is connected to
the engine driveshaft, consists of shoes lined with material
similar to automotive brake linings. At low engine speeds,
springs hold the shoes in, so there is no contact with the outer
drum, which is attached to the transmission input shaft. As
engine speed increases, centrifugal force causes the clutch
shoes to move outward and begin sliding against the outer
drum. The transmission input shaft begins to rotate, causing
the rotor to turn slowly at first, but increasing as the friction
increases between the clutch shoes and transmission drum.
As rotor speed increases, the rotor tachometer needle shows
an increase by moving toward the engine tachometer needle.
When the two needles are superimposed (in the case of a
coaxial-type gage), the engine and the rotor are synchronized,
indicating the clutch is fully engaged and there is no further
slippage of the clutch shoes.
The turbine engine engages the clutch through centrifugal
force, as stated above. Unless a rotor brake is used to
separate the automatic engagement of the main driveshaft and
subsequently the main rotor, the drive shaft turns at the same
time as the engine and the inner drum of the freewheeling unit
engages gradually to turn the main rotor system.
Fuel Systems
The fuel system in a helicopter is made up of two components:
supply and control.
Fuel Supply System
The supply system consists of a fuel tank or tanks, fuel quantity
gauges, a shut-off valve, fuel filter, a fuel line to the engine,
and possibly a primer and fuel pumps. [Figure 4-22] The fuel
tanks are usually mounted to the airframe as close as possible
to the CG. This way, as fuel is burned off, there is a negligible
effect on the CG. A drain valve located on the bottom of the
fuel tank allows the pilot to drain water and sediment that may
have collected in the tank. A fuel vent prevents the formation
of a vacuum in the tank, and an overflow drain allows fuel to
expand without rupturing the tank.
The fuel travels from the fuel tank through a shut-off valve,
which provides a means to completely stop fuel flow to the
engine in the event of an emergency or fire. The shut-off
valve remains in the open position for all normal operations.
Most non-gravity feed fuel systems contain both an electric
pump and a mechanical engine-driven pump. The electrical
pump is used to maintain positive fuel pressure to the
engine pump and may also serve as a backup in the event of
mechanical pump failure. The electrical pump is controlled
by a switch in the cockpit. The engine driven pump is the
primary pump that supplies fuel to the engine and operates
any time the engine is running. A fuel filter removes moisture
and other sediment from the fuel before it reaches the engine.
These contaminants are usually heavier than fuel and settle to
the bottom of the fuel filter sump where they can be drained
out by the pilot.
4-14
Manifold pipe is connected to exhaust manifold
Filter
Carburetor heat collector
To carburetor
Carburetor Heat Off
Carburetor Heat On
Figure 4-23. When the carburetor heat is turned ON, normal air flow
is blocked, and heated air from an alternate source flows through
the filter to the carburetor.
Some fuel systems contain a small hand-operated pump
called a primer. A primer allows fuel to be pumped directly
into the intake port of the cylinders prior to engine start. The
primer is useful in cold weather when fuel in the carburetor
is difficult to vaporize.
A fuel quantity gauge located on the pilot’s instrument panel
shows the amount of fuel measured by a sensing unit inside
the tank. Most fuel gauges will indicate in gallons or pounds
and must be accurate only when empty.
It is worth noting that in accordance with Title 14 of the Code
of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) section 27.1337(b)(1), fuel
quantity indicators “must be calibrated to read ‘zero’ during
level flight when the quantity of fuel remaining in the tank
is equal to the unusable fuel supply.” Therefore, it is of the
utmost importance that the pilot or operator determine an
accurate means of verifying partial or full fuel loads. It is
always a good habit, if possible, to visually verify the fuel on
board prior to flight and determine if adequate fuel is present
for the duration of the flight.
Additionally, 14 CFR section 27.1305(l)(1) requires newer
helicopters to have warning systems “provide a warning
to the flight crew when approximately 10 minutes of
usable fuel remains in the tank.” Caution should be used
to eliminate unnecessary or erratic maneuvering that could
cause interruption of fuel flow to the engine. Although these
systems must be calibrated, never assume the entire amount
is available. Many pilots have not reached their destinations
due to poor fuel planning or faulty fuel indications.
Engine Fuel Control System
Regardless of the device, the reciprocating engine and the
turbine engine both use the ignition and combustion of the
fuel/air mix to provide the source of their power. Engine
fuel control systems utilize several components to meter
the proper amount of fuel necessary to produce the required
amount of power. The fuel control system, in concert with
the air induction components, combines the proper amount of
fuel and air to be ignited in the combustion chamber. Refer
to the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge for a
detailed explanation and illustration.
Carburetor Ice
The effect of fuel vaporization and/or a decrease of air
pressure in the venturi causes a rapid decrease in air
temperature in the carburetor. If the air is moist, the water
vapor in the air may condense causing ice to form in the
carburetor. If ice is allowed to form inside the carburetor,
engine failure is a very real possibility and the ability to
restart the engine is greatly reduced. Carburetor icing can
occur during any phase of flight but is particularly dangerous
when you are using reduced power, such as during a descent.
You may not notice it during the descent until you try to add
power. Indications of carburetor icing are a decrease in engine
rpm or manifold pressure, the carburetor air temperature
gauge indicating a temperature outside the safe operating
range, and engine roughness. A reciprocating engine with a
governor may mask the formation of carburetor ice since it
will maintain a constant manifold pressure and rpm.
Since changes in rpm or manifold pressure can occur
for a number of reasons, closely check the carburetor
air temperature gauge when in possible carburetor icing
conditions. Carburetor air temperature gauges are marked
with a yellow caution arc or green operating arcs. In most
cases, it is best to keep the needle out of the yellow arc or
in the green arc. This is accomplished by using a carburetor
heat system, which eliminates the ice by routing air across
4-15
A
V
I
O
N
I
C
S
B
U
S
B
A
R
A
V
I
O
N
I
C
S
B
U
S
Panel
Position
Beacon
L
I
G
H
T
S
Starter
Battery
+ 60- 60
-30 +300
A M P
Ammeter
Avionics relay
(Optional Avionics)
Trim
Instr
Lndg Lt
Radio
Xpdr
Clutch
B
U
S
B
A
R
Alternator switch
Avionics master switch
Starter relayBattery relay
Left magnetos
ADVRET
L
Right magnetos ADV
R
Battery switch
Clutch actuator (internal
limit switches shown in
full disengage position)
Alternator control unit
Mag switch
Off
L
R
Both
Starting vibrator
Alternator
+
F1F2
Starter switch
M/R gearbox
press switch
Release
Hold
Engage
Clutch switch
Figure 4-24. An electrical system schematic like this sample is included in most POHs. Notice that the various bus bar accessories are
protected by circuit breakers. However, ensure that all electrical equipment is turned off before starting the engine. This protects sensitive
components, particularly the radios, from damage that may be caused by random voltages generated during the starting process.
a heat source, such as an exhaust manifold, before it enters
the carburetor. [Figure 4-23] Refer to the RFM (see Chapter
5, Rotorcraft Flight Manual) for the specific procedure as to
when and how to apply carburetor heat.
Fuel Injection
In a fuel injection system, fuel and air are metered at the fuel
control unit but are not mixed. The fuel is injected directly
into the intake port of the cylinder where it is mixed with
4-16
the air just before entering the cylinder. This system ensures
a more even fuel distribution between cylinders and better
vaporization, which in turn promotes more efficient use of
fuel. Also, the fuel injection system eliminates the problem
of carburetor icing and the need for a carburetor heat system.
Electrical Systems
The electrical systems, in most helicopters, reflect the
increased use of sophisticated avionics and other electrical
accessories. [Figure 4-24] More and more operations in
today’s flight environment are dependent on the aircraft’s
electrical system; however, all helicopters can be safely flown
without any electrical power in the event of an electrical
malfunction or emergency.
Helicopters have either a 14- or 28-volt, direct-current
electrical system. On small, piston powered helicopters,
electrical energy is supplied by an engine-driven alternator
by means of a belt and pulley system similar to that of an
automobile. These alternators have advantages over older-
style generators as they are lighter in weight, require lower
maintenance, and maintain a uniform electrical output even
at low engine rpm. (As a reminder, think of volts or voltage
as the measure of electrical pressure in the system, analogous
to pounds per square inch in water systems. Amperes is the
measure of electrical quantity in the system or available. For
example, a 100-amp alternator would be analogous to a 100
gallon per hour water pump.)
Turbine-powered helicopters use a starter/generator system.
The starter/generator is permanently coupled to the accessory
gearbox. When starting the engine, electrical power from the
battery is supplied to the starter/generator, which turns the
engine over. Once the engine is running, the starter/generator
is driven by the engine and then functions as a generator.
Current from the alternator or generator is delivered through a
voltage regulator to a bus bar. The voltage regulator maintains
the constant voltage required by the electrical system, by
regulating the output of the alternator or generator. An over-
voltage control may be incorporated to prevent excessive
voltage, which may damage the electrical components. The
bus bar serves to distribute the current to the various electrical
components of the helicopter.
A battery is used mainly for starting the engine. In addition,
it permits limited operation of electrical components, such
as radios and lights, without the engine running. The battery
is also a valuable source of standby or emergency electrical
power in the event of alternator or generator failure.
An ammeter (or load meter) is used to monitor the electrical
current within the system. The ammeter reflects current
flowing to and from the battery. A charging ammeter
indicates that the battery is being charged. This is normal
after an engine start since the battery power used in starting
is being replaced. After the battery is charged, the ammeter
should stabilize near zero since the alternator or generator is
supplying the electrical needs of the system.
An ammeter showing a discharge means the electrical load
is exceeding the output of the alternator or generator, and the
battery is helping to supply electrical power. This may mean
the alternator or generator is malfunctioning, or the electrical
load is excessive. An ammeter displays the load placed on the
alternator or generator by the electrical equipment. The RFM
(see page 5-1) for a particular helicopter shows the normal
load to expect. Loss of the alternator or generator causes the
load meter to indicate zero.
Electrical switches are used to select electrical components.
Power may be supplied directly to the component or to a
relay, which in turn provides power to the component. Relays
are used when high current and/or heavy electrical cables are
required for a particular component, which may exceed the
capacity of the switch.
Circuit breakers or fuses are used to protect various electrical
components from overload. A circuit breaker pops out when
its respective component is overloaded. The circuit breaker
may be reset by pushing it back in, unless a short or the
overload still exists. In this case, the circuit breaker continues
to pop, indicating an electrical malfunction. A fuse simply
burns out when it is overloaded and needs to be replaced.
Manufacturers usually provide a holder for spare fuses in the
event one has to be replaced in flight. Caution lights on the
instrument panel may be installed to show the malfunction
of an electrical component.
Hydraulics
Most helicopters, other than smaller piston-powered
helicopters, incorporate the use of hydraulic actuators to
overcome high control forces. [Figure 4-25] A typical
hydraulic system consists of actuators, also called servos,
on each flight control, a pump which is usually driven by
the main rotor transmission and a reservoir to store the
hydraulic fluid. Some helicopters have accumulators located
on the pressure side of the hydraulic system. This allows for
a continuous fluid pressure into the system. A switch in the
cockpit can turn the system off, although it is left on under
normal conditions. When the pilot places the hydraulic
switch/circuit breaker into the on position, the electrical
power is being removed from the solenoid valve allowing
4-17
Servo actuator,
lateral cyclic
Servo actuator,
longitudinal cyclic
Servo actuator,
collective
Rotor control
Pressure regulator valve
Pump
Solenoid valve
Pilot input
Filter
Quick disconnects
RESERVOIR
Vent
Scupper drain
Pressure
Return
Figure 4-25. A typical hydraulic system for helicopters in the light to medium range.
hydraulic fluid to enter the system. When the switch/circuit
breaker is put in the off position, the solenoid valve is now
de-energized and closes, which then allows the pilot to
maintain control of the helicopter with the hydraulic fluid in
the actuators. This is known as a failsafe system. If helicopter
electrical power is lost in flight, the pilot is still able to
maintain control of the hydraulic system. A pressure indicator
in the cockpit may also be installed to monitor the system.
When making a control input, the servo is activated and
provides an assisting force to move the respective flight
control, thus reducing the force the pilot must provide. These
boosted flight controls ease pilot workload and fatigue. In
the event of hydraulic system failure, a pilot is still able to
control the helicopter, but the control forces are very heavy.
In those helicopters in which the control forces are so high that
they cannot be moved without hydraulic assistance, two or
more independent hydraulic systems may be installed. Some
helicopters are designed to use their hydraulic accumulators
to store hydraulic pressure for an emergency, allowing for
uninterrupted use of the controls for a short period of time
following a hydraulic pump failure. This gives you enough
time to land the helicopter with normal control.
Stability Augmentations Systems
Some helicopters incorporate a stability augmentation system
(SAS) to help stabilize the helicopter in flight and in a hover.
The original purpose and design allowed decreased pilot
workload and lessened fatigue. It allowed pilots to place an
aircraft at a set attitude to accomplish other tasks or simply
stabilize the aircraft for long cross-country flights.
Force Trim
Force trim was a passive system that simply held the cyclic
in a position that gave a control force to transitioning airplane
pilots who had become accustomed to such control forces.
The system uses a magnetic clutch and springs to hold the
cyclic control in the position where it was released. The
system does not use sensor-based data to make corrections,
but rather is used by the pilot to “hold” the cyclic in a desired
position. The most basic versions only apply to the cyclic
requiring the pilot to continue power and tail rotor inputs.
With the force trim on or in use, the pilot can override the
system by disengaging the system through the use of a force
trim release button or, with greater resistance, can physically
manipulate the controls. Some recent basic systems are
referred to as attitude retention systems.
Active Augmentation Systems
So-called actual augmentation systems use electric
actuators that provide input to the hydraulic servos. These
servos receive control commands from a computer that
senses external environmental inputs, such as wind and
turbulence. SAS complexity varies by manufacturer but can
be as sophisticated as providing three-axis stability. That is,
computer-based inputs adjust attitude, power and aircraft
trim for a more stabilized flight.
4-18
Once engaged by the pilot, these actual systems use a
multitude of sensors, from stabilized gyros to electro-
mechanical actuators, which provide instantaneous inputs
to all flight controls without pilot assistance. As with all
SASs, they may be overridden or disconnected by the pilot
at any time. Helicopters with complex Automatic Flight
Control Systems (AFCS) and autopilots normally have
a trim switch referred to as “beeper trim.” This switch is
used when minor changes to the trim setting are desired.
Stability augmentation systems reduce pilot workload by
improving basic aircraft control harmony and decreasing
disturbances. These systems are very useful when the pilot
is required to perform other duties, such as sling loading and
search-and-rescue operations. Other inputs such as heading,
speed, altitude, and navigation information may be supplied
to the computer to form a complete autopilot system.
Autopilot
Helicopter autopilot systems are similar to stability
augmentation systems, but they have additional features. An
autopilot can actually fly the helicopter and perform certain
functions selected by the pilot. These functions depend on
the type of autopilot and systems installed in the helicopter.
The most common functions are altitude and heading hold.
Some more advanced systems include a vertical speed or
indicated airspeed (IAS) hold mode, where a constant rate
of climb/descent or IAS is maintained by the autopilot. Some
autopilots have navigation capabilities, such as very high
frequency (VHF) OmniRange Navigation System (VOR),
Instrument Landing System (ILS), and global positioning
system (GPS) intercept and tracking, which is especially
useful in instrument flight rules (IFR) conditions. This is
referred to as a coupled system. An additional component,
called a flight director (FD), may also be installed. The FD
provides visual guidance cues to the pilot to fly selected
lateral and vertical modes of operation. The most advanced
autopilots can fly an instrument approach to a hover without
any additional pilot input once the initial functions have
been selected.
The autopilot system consists of electric actuators or servos
connected to the flight controls. The number and location of
these servos depends on the type of system installed. A two-
axis autopilot controls the helicopter in pitch and roll; one
servo controls fore and aft cyclic, and another controls left
and right cyclic. A three-axis autopilot has an additional servo
connected to the antitorque pedals and controls the helicopter
in yaw. A four-axis system uses a fourth servo which controls
the collective. These servos move the respective flight
controls when they receive control commands from a central
computer. This computer receives data input from the flight
instruments for attitude reference and from the navigation
equipment for navigation and tracking reference. An autopilot
has a control panel in the cockpit that allows the pilot to
select the desired functions, as well as engage the autopilot.
For safety purposes, an automatic disengagement feature
is usually included which automatically disconnects the
autopilot in heavy turbulence or when extreme flight attitudes
are reached. Even though all autopilots can be overridden
by the pilot, there is also an autopilot disengagement button
located on the cyclic or collective which allows pilots to
completely disengage the autopilot without removing their
hands from the controls. Because autopilot systems and
installations differ from one helicopter to another, it is very
important to refer to the autopilot operating procedures
located in the RFM.
Environmental Systems
Heating and cooling the helicopter cabin can be accomplished
in different ways. The simplest form of cooling is by ram air.
Air ducts in the front or sides of the helicopter are opened or
closed by the pilot to let ram air into the cabin. This system
is limited as it requires forward airspeed to provide airflow
and also depends on the temperature of the outside air. Air
conditioning provides better cooling, but it is more complex
and weighs more than a ram air system.
One of the simplest methods of cooling a helicopter is to
remove the doors allowing air to flow through the cockpit
and engine compartments. Care must be taken to store the
doors properly, whether in a designed door-holding rack in
a hangar, or if it is necessary to carry them on the flight, in
the helicopter. When storing the doors, care must be taken
to not scratch the windows. Special attention should be paid
to ensuring that all seat belt cushions and any other loose
items are stored away to prevent ingestion into the main or
tail rotor. When reattaching the doors, proper care must be
taken to ensure that they are fully secured and closed.
Air conditioners or heat exchanges can be fitted to the
helicopter as well. They operate by drawing bleed air from
the compressor, passing it through the heart exchanger and
then releasing it into the cabin. As the compressed air is
released, the expansion absorbs heat and cools the cabin. The
disadvantage of this type of system is that power is required
to compress the air or gas for the cooling function, thus
robbing the engine of some of its capability. Some systems
are restricted from use during takeoff and landings.
4-19
Piston-powered helicopters use a heat exchanger shroud
around the exhaust manifold to provide cabin heat. Outside
air is piped to the shroud and the hot exhaust manifold heats
the air, which is then blown into the cockpit. This warm air
is heated by the exhaust manifold but is not exhaust gas.
Turbine helicopters use a bleed air system for heat. Bleed air
is hot, compressed, discharge air from the engine compressor.
Hot air is ducted from the compressor to the bleed air heater
assembly where it is combined with ambient air through
and induction port mounted to the fuselage. The amount of
heat delivered to the helicopter cabin is regulated by a pilot-
controlled bleed air mixing valve.
Anti-Icing Systems
Anti-icing is the process of protecting against the formation
of frozen contaminant, snow, ice, or slush on a surface.
Engine Anti-Ice
The anti-icing system found on most turbine-powered
helicopters uses engine bleed air. Bleed air in turbine engines
is compressed air taken from within the engine, after the
compressor stage(s) and before the fuel is injected in the
burners. The bleed air flows through the inlet guide vanes
and to the inlet itself to prevent ice formation on the hollow
vanes. A pilot-controlled, electrically operated valve on the
compressor controls the air flow. Engine anti-ice systems
should be on prior to entry into icing conditions and remain
on until exiting those conditions. Use of the engine anti-ice
system should always be in accordance with the proper RFM.
Airframe Anti-Ice
Airframe and rotor anti-icing may be found on some larger
helicopters, but it is not common due to the complexity,
expense, and weight of such systems. The leading edges of
rotors may be heated with bleed air or electrical elements to
prevent ice formation. Balance and control problems might
arise if ice is allowed to form unevenly on the blades. Research
is being done on lightweight ice-phobic (anti-icing) materials
or coatings. These materials placed in strategic areas could
significantly reduce ice formation and improve performance.
The pitot tube on a helicopter is very susceptible to ice and
moisture buildup as well. To prevent this, they are usually
equipped with a heating system that uses an electrical element
to heat the tube.
Deicing
Deicing is the process of removing frozen contaminant,
snow, ice, and/or slush from a surface. Deicing of the
helicopter fuselage and rotor blades is critical prior to starting.
Helicopters that are unsheltered by hangars are subject
to frost, snow, freezing drizzle, and freezing rain that can
cause icing of rotor blades and fuselages, rendering them
unflyable until cleaned. Asymmetrical shedding of ice from
the blades can lead to component failure, and shedding ice
can be dangerous as it may hit any structures or people that
are around the helicopter. The tail rotor is very vulnerable to
shedding ice damage. Thorough preflight checks should be
made before starting the rotor blades. If any ice was removed
prior to starting, ensure that the flight controls move freely.
While in flight, for those helicopters that have them, deicing
systems should be activated immediately after entry into an
icing condition.
Chapter Summary
This chapter discussed all of the common components,
sections, and systems of the helicopter. The chapter also
explained how each of them work with one another to make
flight possible.
4-20
5-1
Introduction
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part
91 requires pilot compliance with the operating limitations
specified in approved rotorcraft flight manuals, markings, and
placards. Originally, flight manuals were often characterized
by a lack of essential information and followed whatever
format and content the manufacturer deemed appropriate.
This changed with the acceptance of the General Aviation
Manufacturers Association (GAMA) specification for a
Pilot’s Operating Handbook, which established a standardized
format for all general aviation airplane and rotorcraft flight
manuals. The term “Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH)” is
often used in place of “ Rotorcraft Flight Manual (RFM).”
Rotorcraft Flight Manual
Chapter 5
5-2
ROBINSON R22
ROTORCRAFT
FLIGHT
MANUAL
Figure 5-1. The RFM is a regulatory document in terms of the
maneuvers, procedures, and operating limitations described therein.
However, if “Pilot’s Operating Handbook” is used as the main
title instead of “Rotorcraft Flight Manual,” a statement must
be included on the title page indicating that the document
is the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approved
Rotorcraft Flight Manual (RFM). [Figure 5-1]
Not including the preliminary pages, an FAA-approved
RFM may contain as many as ten sections. These sections
are: General Information; Operating Limitations; Emergency
Procedures; Normal Procedures; Performance; Weight
and Balance; Aircraft and Systems Description; Handling,
Servicing, and Maintenance Supplements; and Safety
and Operational Tips. Manufacturers have the option of
including a tenth section on safety and operational tips and
an alphabetical index at the end of the handbook.
Preliminary Pages
While RFMs may appear similar for the same make and
model of aircraft, each flight manual is unique since it
contains specific information about a particular aircraft,
such as the equipment installed, and weight and balance
information. Therefore, manufacturers are required to include
the serial number and registration on the title page to identify
the aircraft to which the flight manual belongs. If a flight
manual does not indicate a specific aircraft registration and
serial number, it is limited to general study purposes only.
Most manufacturers include a table of contents, which
identifies the order of the entire manual by section number
and title. In addition, some helicopters may include a log of
changes or a revision page to track changes to the manual.
Usually, each section also contains its own table of contents.
Page numbers reflect the section being read, 1-1, 2-1, 3-1, and
so on. If the flight manual is published in looseleaf form, each
section is usually marked with a divider tab indicating the
section number or title, or both. The emergency procedures
section may have a red tab for quick identification and
reference.
General Information (Section 1)
The general information section provides the basic descriptive
information on the rotorcraft and the powerplant. In some
manuals there is a three-view drawing of the rotorcraft that
provides the dimensions of various components, including
the overall length and width, and the diameter of the rotor
systems. This is a good place for pilots to quickly familiarize
themselves with the aircraft. Pilots need to be aware of the
dimensions of the helicopter since they often must decide
the suitability of an operations area for themselves, as well
as hanger space, landing pad, and ground handling needs.
Pilots can find definitions, abbreviations, explanations of
symbology, and some of the terminology used in the manual
at the end of this section. At the option of the manufacturer,
metric and other conversion tables may also be included.
Operating Limitations (Section 2)
The operating limitations section contains only those
limitations required by regulation or that are necessary for
the safe operation of the rotorcraft, powerplant, systems,
and equipment. It includes operating limitations, instrument
markings, color coding, and basic placards. Some of the
areas included are: airspeed, altitude, rotor, and powerplant
limitations, including fuel and oil requirements; weight and
loading distribution; and flight limitations.
Instrument Markings
Instrument markings may include, but are not limited to,
green, red, and yellow ranges for the safe operation of the
aircraft. The green marking indicates a range of continuous
operation. The red range indicates the maximum or minimum
operation allowed while the yellow range indicates a caution
or transition area.
Airspeed Limitations
Airspeed limitations are shown on the airspeed indicator
by color coding and on placards or graphs in the aircraft. A
red line on the airspeed indicator shows the airspeed limit
beyond which structural damage could occur. This is called
the never exceed speed, or VNE. The normal operating speed
range is depicted by a green arc. A blue or a red cross-hatched
line is sometimes added to show the maximum autorotation
speed. [Figure 5-2]
Other airspeed limitations may be included in this section
of the RFM. Examples include reduced VNE when doors are
removed, maximum airspeed for level flight with maximum
continuous power (V H), or restrictions when carrying an
external load. Pilots need to understand and adhere to all
airspeed limitations appropriate to the make, model, and
configuration of the helicopter being flown.