Introduction
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part
91 requires pilot compliance with the operating limitations
specified in approved rotorcraft flight manuals, markings, and
placards. Originally, flight manuals were often characterized
by a lack of essential information and followed whatever
format and content the manufacturer deemed appropriate.
This changed with the acceptance of the General Aviation
Manufacturers Association (GAMA) specification for a
Pilot’s Operating Handbook, which established a standardized
format for all general aviation airplane and rotorcraft flight
manuals. The term “Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH)” is
often used in place of “ Rotorcraft Flight Manual (RFM).”
Rotorcraft Flight Manual
Chapter 5
ROBINSON R22
ROTORCRAFT
FLIGHT
MANUAL
Figure 5-1. The RFM is a regulatory document in terms of the
maneuvers, procedures, and operating limitations described therein.
However, if “Pilot’s Operating Handbook” is used as the main
title instead of “Rotorcraft Flight Manual,” a statement must
be included on the title page indicating that the document
is the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approved
Rotorcraft Flight Manual (RFM). [Figure 5-1]
Not including the preliminary pages, an FAA-approved
RFM may contain as many as ten sections. These sections
are: General Information; Operating Limitations; Emergency
Procedures; Normal Procedures; Performance; Weight
and Balance; Aircraft and Systems Description; Handling,
Servicing, and Maintenance Supplements; and Safety
and Operational Tips. Manufacturers have the option of
including a tenth section on safety and operational tips and
an alphabetical index at the end of the handbook.
Preliminary Pages
While RFMs may appear similar for the same make and
model of aircraft, each flight manual is unique since it
contains specific information about a particular aircraft,
such as the equipment installed, and weight and balance
information. Therefore, manufacturers are required to include
the serial number and registration on the title page to identify
the aircraft to which the flight manual belongs. If a flight
manual does not indicate a specific aircraft registration and
serial number, it is limited to general study purposes only.
Most manufacturers include a table of contents, which
identifies the order of the entire manual by section number
and title. In addition, some helicopters may include a log of
changes or a revision page to track changes to the manual.
Usually, each section also contains its own table of contents.
Page numbers reflect the section being read, 1-1, 2-1, 3-1, and
so on. If the flight manual is published in looseleaf form, each
section is usually marked with a divider tab indicating the
section number or title, or both. The emergency procedures
section may have a red tab for quick identification and
reference.
General Information (Section 1)
The general information section provides the basic descriptive
information on the rotorcraft and the powerplant. In some
manuals there is a three-view drawing of the rotorcraft that
provides the dimensions of various components, including
the overall length and width, and the diameter of the rotor
systems. This is a good place for pilots to quickly familiarize
themselves with the aircraft. Pilots need to be aware of the
dimensions of the helicopter since they often must decide
the suitability of an operations area for themselves, as well
as hanger space, landing pad, and ground handling needs.
Pilots can find definitions, abbreviations, explanations of
symbology, and some of the terminology used in the manual
at the end of this section. At the option of the manufacturer,
metric and other conversion tables may also be included.
Operating Limitations (Section 2)
The operating limitations section contains only those
limitations required by regulation or that are necessary for
the safe operation of the rotorcraft, powerplant, systems,
and equipment. It includes operating limitations, instrument
markings, color coding, and basic placards. Some of the
areas included are: airspeed, altitude, rotor, and powerplant
limitations, including fuel and oil requirements; weight and
loading distribution; and flight limitations.
Instrument Markings
Instrument markings may include, but are not limited to,
green, red, and yellow ranges for the safe operation of the
aircraft. The green marking indicates a range of continuous
operation. The red range indicates the maximum or minimum
operation allowed while the yellow range indicates a caution
or transition area.
Airspeed Limitations
Airspeed limitations are shown on the airspeed indicator
by color coding and on placards or graphs in the aircraft. A
red line on the airspeed indicator shows the airspeed limit
beyond which structural damage could occur. This is called
the never exceed speed, or VNE. The normal operating speed
range is depicted by a green arc. A blue or a red cross-hatched
line is sometimes added to show the maximum autorotation
speed. [Figure 5-2]
Other airspeed limitations may be included in this section
of the RFM. Examples include reduced VNE when doors are
removed, maximum airspeed for level flight with maximum
continuous power (V H), or restrictions when carrying an
external load. Pilots need to understand and adhere to all
airspeed limitations appropriate to the make, model, and
configuration of the helicopter being flown.
Airspeed-knots
0 to 130 Knots (0 to 150 MPH) continuous operation
130 Knots (150 MPH) maximum
100 Knots (115 MPH) maximum for autorotation
KNOTS
AIRSPEED
MPH
x 10
RPM
ROTOR
ENGINE
60 70
TORQUE
PERCENT
TURB
OUT
TEMP
°C x 100
4 5
Figure 5-2. Typical airspeed indicator limitations and markings.
Figure 5-3. Markings on a typical dual-needle tachometer in a
reciprocating-engine helicopter. The outer band shows the limits
of the superimposed needles when the engine is turning the rotor.
The inner band indicates the power-off limits.
Figure 5-4. Torque and turbine outlet temperature (TOT) gauges
are commonly used with turbine-powered aircraft.
Altitude Limitations
If the rotorcraft has a maximum operating density altitude
(see page 7-2), it is indicated in this section of the flight
manual. Sometimes the maximum altitude varies based on
different gross weights.
Rotor Limitations
Low rpm does not produce sufficient lift, and high rpm may
cause structural damage, therefore rotor rpm limitations have
minimum and maximum values. A green arc depicts the
normal operating range with red lines showing the minimum
and maximum limits. [Figure 5-3]
There are two different rotor rpm limitations: power-on and
power-off. Power-on limitations apply anytime the engine
is turning the rotor and is depicted by a fairly narrow green
band. A yellow arc may be included to show a transition
range, which means that operation within this range is limited
due to the possibility of increased vibrations or harmonics.
This range may be associated with tailboom dynamic modes.
Power-off limitations apply anytime the engine is not turning
the rotor, such as when in an autorotation. In this case, the
green arc is wider than the power-on arc, indicating a larger
operating range.
Powerplant Limitations
The powerplant limitations area describes operating
limitations on the helicopter’s engine including such items
as rpm range, power limitations, operating temperatures,
and fuel and oil requirements. Most turbine engines and
some reciprocating engines have a maximum power and a
maximum continuous power rating. The “maximum power”
rating is the maximum power the engine can generate and
is usually limited by time. The maximum power range is
depicted by a yellow arc on the engine power instruments,
with a red line indicating the maximum power that must not
be exceeded. “Maximum continuous power” is the maximum
power the engine can generate continually and is depicted
by a green arc. [Figure 5-4]
Manifold pressure is a measure of vacuum at the intake
manifold. It is the difference between the air pressure
(or vacuum) inside the intake manifold and the relative
atmospheric pressure of the air around the engine. The
red line on a manifold pressure gauge indicates the
maximum amount of power. A yellow arc on the gauge
warns of pressures approaching the limit of rated power.
INCHES
OF MERCURY
MANIFOLD
PRESSURE
0 109 109 105 84 61 -- --
20 109 109 94 72 49 -- --
40 109 103 81 59 -- -- --
60 109 91 70 48 -- -- --
80 109 80 59 -- -- -- --
100 109 70 48 -- -- -- --
0 109 109 109 109 98 77 58
20 109 109 109 109 85 67 48
40 109 109 109 96 75 57 --
60 109 109 108 84 66 48 --
80 109 109 95 74 57 -- --
100 109 108 84 66 48 -- --
VNE—MPH IAS Gross
Weight
Press Alt.
(1,000 ft.)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Maximum VNE Doors off—102 MPH IAS
More
than
1,700 lb
1,700 lb
or less
F OAT
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
MAX ALT.
-20°C
0°C
+20°C
+40°C
NEVER EXCEED SPEED
Pressure Altitude (1,000 feet)
KIAS
VNE
Figure 5-5. The manifold pressure gauge is an engine instrument
typically used in piston aircraft engines to measure the pressure
inside the induction system of an engine. Manifold pressure is a
measurement of vacuum and the measurement is taken at the intake
manifold.
Figure 5-6. Various VNE placards.
[Figure 5-5] A placard near the gauge lists the maximum
readings for specific conditions.
Weight and Loading Distribution
The weight and loading distribution section of the
manufacturer's RFM contains the maximum certificated
weights, as well as the center of gravity (CG) range. The
location of the reference datum used in balance computations
should also be included in this section. Weight and balance
computations are not provided here, but rather in the weight
and balance section of the RFM.
Flight Limitations
This area lists any maneuvers which are prohibited, such
as acrobatic flight or flight into known icing conditions. If
the rotorcraft can only be flown in visual flight rules (VFR)
conditions, it is noted in this area. Also included are the
minimum crew requirements, and the pilot seat location, if
applicable, from which solo flights must be conducted.
Placards
All rotorcraft generally have one or more placards displayed
that have a direct and important bearing on the safe operation
of the rotorcraft. These placards are located in a conspicuous
place within the cabin and normally appear in the limitations
section. Since VNE varies with altitude, this placard can be
found in all helicopters. [Figure 5-6]
Emergency Procedures (Section 3)
Concise checklists describing the recommended procedures
and airspeeds for coping with various types of emergencies
or critical situations can be found in this section. Some of
the emergencies covered include: engine failure in a hover
and at altitude, tail rotor failures, fires, and systems failures.
The procedures for restarting an engine and for ditching in
the water might also be included.
Manufacturers may first show the emergencies checklists in
an abbreviated form with the order of items reflecting the
sequence of action. This is followed by amplified checklists
providing additional information to clarify the procedure. To
be prepared for an abnormal or emergency situation, learn
the first steps of each checklist, if not all the steps. If time
permits, refer to the checklist to make sure all items have
been covered. For more information on emergencies, refer
to Chapter 11, Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards.
Manufacturers are encouraged to include an optional area
titled Abnormal Procedures, which describes recommended
procedures for handling malfunctions that are not considered
to be emergencies. This information would most likely be
found in larger helicopters.
Gross Weight (lb)
Pressure Altitude (ft)
1,5001,400 1,600 1,700 1,8000
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
Outside air temperature 120°F
Outside air temperature 100°F
Outside air temperature 80°F
Outside air temperature 60°F
Outside air temperature 40°F
Outside air temperature 20°F
Outside air temperature 0°F
8,000 FT DENSITY ALTITUDE
MIXTURE FULL RICH
Figure 5-7. One of the performance charts in the performance
section is the In Ground Effect Hover Ceiling versus Gross Weight
chart. This chart can be used to determine how much weight can
be carried and still operate at a specific pressure altitude or, if
carrying a specific weight, detrmine that specific altitude limitation.
Normal Procedures (Section 4)
The normal procedures section is the section most frequently
used. It usually begins with a listing of airspeeds that
may enhance the safety of normal operations. It is a good
idea to learn the airspeeds that are used for normal flight
operations. The next part of the section includes several
checklists, which cover the preflight inspection, before-
starting procedure, how to start the engine, rotor engagement,
ground checks, takeoff, approach, landing, and shutdown.
Some manufacturers also include the procedures for practice
autorotations. To avoid skipping an important step, always
use a checklist when one is available. More information
on maneuvers can be found in Chapter 9, Basic Flight
Maneuvers, and Chapter 10, Advanced Flight Maneuvers.
Performance (Section 5)
The performance section contains all the information required
by the regulations and any additional performance information
the manufacturer determines may enhance a pilot’s ability to
operate the helicopter safely. Although the performance section
is not in the limitation section and is therefore not a limitation,
operation outside or beyond the flight-tested and documented
performance section can be expensive, slightly hazardous, or
outright dangerous to life and property. If the helicopter is
certificated under 14 CFR part 29, then the performance section
may very well be a restrictive limitation. In any event, a pilot
should determine the performance available and plan to stay
within those parameters.
These charts, graphs, and tables vary in style, but all contain
the same basic information. Some examples of the performance
information that can be found in most flight manuals include
a calibrated versus indicated airspeed conversion graph,
hovering ceiling versus gross weight charts, and a height-
velocity diagram. [Figure 5-7] For information on how to use
the charts, graphs, and tables, refer to Chapter 7, Helicopter
Performance.
Weight and Balance (Section 6)
The weight and balance section should contain all the
information required by the FAA that is necessary to calculate
weight and balance. To help compute the proper data, most
manufacturers include sample problems. Weight and balance
is detailed in Chapter 6, Weight and Balance.
Aircraft and Systems Description
(Section 7)
The aircraft and systems description section is an excellent
place to study all the systems found on an aircraft. The
manufacturers should describe the systems in a manner that
is understandable to most pilots. For larger, more complex
helicopters, the manufacturer may assume a higher degree of
knowledge. For more information on helicopter systems, refer
to Chapter 4, Helicopter Components, Sections, and Systems.
Handling, Servicing, and Maintenance
(Section 8)
The handling, servicing, and maintenance section describes
the maintenance and inspections recommended by the
manufacturer, as well as those required by the regulations,
and airworthiness directive (AD) compliance procedures.
There are also suggestions on how the pilot/operator can
ensure that the work is done properly.
This section also describes preventative maintenance that
may be accomplished by certificated pilots, as well as the
manufacturer’s recommended ground handling procedures,
including considerations for hangaring, tie down, and general
storage procedures for the helicopter.
Supplements (Section 9)
The supplements section describes pertinent information
necessary to operate optional equipment installed on the
helicopter that would not be installed on a standard aircraft.
Some of this information may be supplied by the aircraft
manufacturer, or by the maker of the optional equipment.
The information is then inserted into the flight manual at the
time the equipment is installed.
Since civilian manuals are not updated to the extent of
military manuals, the pilot must learn to read the supplements
after determining what equipment is installed and amend
their daily use checklists to integrate the supplemental
instructions and procedures. This is why air carriers must
furnish checklists to their crews. Those checklists furnished
to the crews must incorporate all procedures from any and all
equipment actually installed in the aircraft and the approved
company procedures.
Safety and Operational Tips (Section 10)
The safety and operational tips section is optional and
contains a review of information that could enhance the
safety of the operation. Manufacturers may include best
operating practices and other recommended procedures for
the enhancement of safety and reducing accidents. Some
examples of the information that might be covered include
physiological factors, general weather information, fuel
conservation procedures, external load warnings, low rotor
rpm considerations, and recommendations that if not adhered
to, could lead to an emergency.
Chapter Summary
This chapter familiarized the reader with the RFM. It
detailed each section and explained how to follow and better
understand the flight manual to enhance safety of flight.