Part 5: FAA… | FAA Helicopter Flying…

8-6

squinting.

8. If suddenly blinded by dust or a blowing object, stop

and crouch lower; better yet, sit down and wait for help.

9. Never grope or feel your way toward or away from

the helicopter.

10. Protect hearing by wearing earplugs or earmuffs.

Since few helicopters carry cabin attendants, the pilot must

conduct the pretakeoff and prelanding briefings, usually

before takeoff due to noise and cockpit layout. The type

of operation dictates what sort of briefing is necessary. All

briefings should include the following:

1. Passengers should be briefed and understand the proper

use of seatbelts, doors, and headsets/intercom system.

2. The safe entry and exit paths (away from the tail rotor

and within the pilot’s view).

3. If possible, remove front passenger flight controls and

ensure all passenger personal items, such as cameras

and mobile phones are secure.

4. For over water flights, the location and use of flotation

gear and other survival equipment that are onboard.

Pilot instructions should include how and when to exit

the helicopter should ditching or a water landing occur.

5. For flights over rough or isolated terrain, the pilot

should brief all occupants regarding the location of

maps and survival equipment.

6. Passengers should be informed as to what actions and

precautions to take in the event of an emergency, such

as the body position for best spinal protection against

a high vertical impact (erect with back firmly against

the seat back); and when and how to exit. Ensure

that passengers are aware of the location of the fire

extinguisher, survival equipment and, if equipped,

how to use and locate the Emergency Position

Indicator Radio Beacon (EPIRB).

When passengers are approaching or leaving a helicopter

that is sitting on a slope with the rotors turning, they should

approach and depart downhill. This affords the greatest

distance between the rotor blades and the ground. If this

involves walking around the helicopter, they should always

go around the front—never the rear.

Pilot at the Flight Controls

Many helicopter operators have been lured into a “quick

turnaround” ground operation to avoid delays at airport

terminals and to minimize stop/start cycles of the engine.

As part of this quick turn-around, the pilot might leave

the cockpit with the engine and rotors turning. Such an

operation can be extremely hazardous if a gust of wind

disturbs the rotor disk, or the collective flight control

moves causing lift to be generated by the rotor system.

Either occurrence may cause the helicopter to roll or pitch,

resulting in a rotor blade striking the tail boom or the

ground. Good operating procedures dictate that, generally,

pilots remain at the flight controls whenever the engine is

running, and the rotors are turning.

If operations require the pilot to leave the cockpit to refuel,

the throttle should be rolled back to flight idle and all

controls firmly frictioned to prevent uncommanded control

movements. The pilot should be well trained on setting

controls and exiting the cockpit without disturbing the flight

or power controls.

After Landing and Securing

When the flight is terminated, park the helicopter where

it does not interfere with other aircraft and is not a hazard

to people during shutdown. For many helicopters, it is

advantageous to land with the wind coming from the right

over the tail boom (counterrotating blades). This tends to

lift the blades over the tail boom but lowers the blades in

front of the helicopter. This action decreases the likelihood

of a main rotor strike to the tail boom due to gusty winds.

Rotor downwash can cause damage to other aircraft in close

proximity, and spectators may not realize the danger or see the

rotors turning. Passengers should remain in the helicopter with

their seats belts secured until the rotors have stopped turning.

During the shutdown and postflight inspection, follow the

manufacturer’s checklist. Any discrepancies should be noted

and, if necessary, reported to maintenance personnel.

Chapter Summary

This chapter explained the importance of preflight and

safety when conducting helicopter ground operations. Proper

procedures for engine run-up, refueling, and ground safety

were detailed and the responsibilities of the pilot when

maintenance issues occur before flight.

9-1

Introduction

From the previous chapters, it should be apparent that no

two helicopters perform the same way. Even when flying

the same model of helicopter, wind, temperature, humidity,

weight, and equipment make it difficult to predict just how

the helicopter will perform. Therefore, this chapter presents

the basic flight maneuvers in a way that would apply to

the majority of helicopters. In most cases, the techniques

described apply to small training helicopters with:

• A single, main rotor rotating in a counterclock wise

direction (looking downward on the rotor).

• An antitorque system.

Basic Flight Maneuvers

Chapter 9

9-2

Where a technique differs, it is noted. For example, a power

increase on a helicopter with a clockwise rotor system

requires right antitorque pedal pressure instead of left pedal

pressure. In many cases, the terminology “apply proper pedal

pressure” is used to indicate both types of rotor systems.

However, when discussing throt tle coordination to maintain

proper rotations per minute (rpm), there is no differentiation

between those helicopters with a gov ernor and those without.

In a sense, the governor is doing the work for you. In addition,

instead of using the terms “collective pitch control” and

“cyclic pitch control” throughout the chapter, these controls

are referred to as just “collective” and “cyclic.”

Because helicopter performance varies with weather

conditions and aircraft loading, specific nose attitudes and

power settings are not detailed in this handbook. In addition,

this chapter does not detail every attitude of a helicopter in

the various flight maneuvers, nor every move that must be

made in order to perform a given maneuver.

When a maneuver is presented, there is a brief description,

followed by the technique to accomplish the maneuver. In

most cases, there is a list of common errors at the end of the

discussion.

The Four Fundamentals

There are four fundamentals of flight upon which all

maneuvers are based: straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs,

and descents. All controlled flight maneuvers consist of one

or more of these four fundamentals of flight. If a student pilot

is able to perform these maneuvers well, and the student’s

proficiency is based on accurate “feel” and control analysis

rather than mechanical movements, the ability to perform

any assigned maneuver is only a matter of obtaining a clear

visual and mental conception of it. The flight instructor must

impart a good knowledge of these basic elements to the

student and must combine them and plan their practice so that

proper performance of each is instinctive without conscious

effort. The importance of this to the success of flight training

cannot be overemphasized. As the student progresses to

more complex maneuvers, discounting any difficulties in

visualizing the maneuvers, most student difficulties are

caused by a lack of training, practice, or understanding of the

principles of one or more of these fundamentals.

Guidelines

Good practices to follow during maneuvering flight include:

1. Move the cyclic only as fast as trim, torque, and rotor

speed can be maintained. When entering a maneuver

and the trim, rotor, or torque reacts quicker than

anticipated, pilot limitations have been exceeded. If

continued, an aircraft limitation will be exceeded.

Perform the maneuver with less intensity until all

aspects of the machine can be controlled. The pilot

must be aware of the sensitivity of the flight controls

due to the high speed of the main rotor.

2. Anticipate changes in aircraft performance due to

loading or environmental condition. The normal

collective increase to check rotor speed at sea level

standard (SLS) may not be sufficient at 4,000 feet

pressure altitude (PA) and 95 °F.

3. The following flight characteristics may be expected

during maneuvering flight and will be discussed and

demonstrated by your Flight Instructor:

• Left turns, torque increases (more antitorque).

This applies to most helicopters, but not all.

• Right turns, torque decreases (less antitorque).

This applies to most helicopters, but not all.

• Application of aft cyclic, torque decreases and

rotor speed increases.

• Application of forward cyclic (especially when

immediately following aft cyclic application),

torque increases and rotor speed decreases.

• Always leave a way out.

• Know where the winds are.

• Engine failures can occur during power changes

and cruise flight. One possible cause of engine

failure during cruise flight can be attributed to the

pilot ignoring carburetor air temperatures, which

could lead to carburetor icing and, subsequently,

engine failure.

• Crew coordination is critical. Everyone needs

to be fully aware of what is going on, and each

crewmember has a specific duty.

• In steep turns, the nose drops. In most cases,

energy (airspeed) must be traded to maintain

altitude as the required excess engine power may

not be available (to maintain airspeed in a 2G/60°

turn, rotor thrust/engine power must increase by

100 percent). Failure to anticipate this at low

altitude endangers the crew and passengers.

The rate of pitch change is proportional to gross

weight and density altitude.

• Normal helicopter landings usually require high

power settings, with terminations to a hover

requiring the highest power setting.

• The cyclic position relative to the horizon

determines the helicopter’s travel and attitude.

9-3

A O M

CLUTCH MR

TEMP

CHIP

STARTER

CHIP

lOW

FUEL

LOW

RPM

26 26

FUEL

245 II5

I00

OBS

333

21 15

NAV

VERTICAL SPEED

100 FEET PER MINUTE

DOWN

3024

I2 6

2 MIN TURN

DC ELEC

L R

30.0

29.929.8

I00 FEET

456

CALIBRATED

20,000 FEET

ALT

20 20

I0 I0

20 20

TESTSTBY PWR

IN Hg

ALg.

MANFOLD

PRESS

20 30

6070

100

0 10

MPH

KNOTS

120

110

100

90 80 70

3020

110

100

110

100

E R

%RPM

Figure 9-1. Maintain straight-and-level flight by adjusting the rotor

tip-path plane forward but adjusting the collective as necessary to

maintain a constant airspeed and altitude. The natural horizon line

can be used as an aid in maintaining straight-and-level flight. If

the horizon line begins to rise, slight power may be required or the

nose of the helicopter may be too low. If the horizon line is slowly

dropping, some power may need to be taken out or the nose of the

helicopter may be too high, requiring a cyclic adjustment.

Straight-and-Level Flight

Straight-and-level flight is flight in which constant altitude

and heading are maintained. The attitude of the rotor disk

relative to the horizon determines the airspeed. The horizontal

stabilizer design determines the helicopter’s attitude when

stabilized at an airspeed and altitude. Altitude is primarily

controlled by use of the collective.

Technique

To maintain forward flight, the rotor tip-path plane must

be tilted forward to obtain the necessary horizontal thrust

component from the main rotor. By doing this, it causes the

nose of the helicopter to lower which in turn will cause the

airspeed to increase. In order to counteract this, the pilot

must find the correct power setting to maintain level flight by

adjusting the collective. [Figure 9-1] The horizontal stabilizer

aids in trimming the helicopter about its transverse, horizontal

axis, and reduces the amount of nose tuck that would occur.

On several helicopters, it is designed as a negative lift airfoil,

which produces a lifting force in a downward direction.

When in straight-and-level flight, any increase in the

collective, while holding airspeed constant, causes the

helicopter to climb. A decrease in the collective, while holding

airspeed constant, causes the helicopter to descend. A change

in the collective requires a coordi nated change of the throttle

to maintain a constant rpm. Additionally, the antitorque pedals

need to keep the helicopter in trim around the vertical axis.

To increase airspeed in straight-and-level flight, apply

forward pressure on the cyclic and raise the collective as

necessary to maintain altitude. To decrease airspeed, apply

rearward pressure on the cyclic and lower the collective, as

necessary, to maintain altitude.

Although the cyclic is sensitive, there is a slight delay in

control reaction, and it is necessary to antici pate actual

movement of the helicopter. When making cyclic inputs to

control the altitude or airspeed of a hel icopter, take care not

to overcontrol. If the nose of the helicopter rises above the

level-flight attitude, apply forward pressure to the cyclic to

bring the nose down. If this correction is held too long, the

nose drops too low. Since the helicopter continues to change

attitude momentarily after the controls reach neutral, return

the cyclic to neutral slightly before the desired attitude is

reached. This principle holds true for any cyclic input.

Since helicopters are not very stable, but are inherently very

controllable, if a gust or turbulence causes the nose to drop,

the nose tends to continue to drop instead of returning to a

straight-and-level attitude as it would on a fixed-wing aircraft.

Therefore, a pilot must remain alert and fly the helicop ter

at all times.

Common Errors

1. Failure to trim the helicopter properly, tending to hold

antitorque pedal pressure and opposite cyclic. This is

commonly called cross-controlling.

2. Failure to maintain desired airspeed.

3. Failure to hold proper control position to main tain

desired ground track.

4. Failure to allow helicopter to stabilize at new airspeed.

Turns

A turn is a maneuver used to change the heading of the

helicopter. The aerodynamics of a turn were previously

discussed in Chapter 2, Aerodynamics of Flight.

Technique

Before beginning any turn, the area in the direction of the

turn must be cleared not only at the helicopter’s alti tude, but

also above and below. To enter a turn from straight-and-level

flight, apply sideward pressure on the cyclic in the direction

the turn is to be made. This is the only control movement

needed to start the turn. Do not use the pedals to assist the

turn. Use the pedals only to compensate for torque to keep

the helicopter in trim around the vertical axis. [Figure 9-2]

Keeping the fuselage in the correct streamlined position

around the vertical axis facilitates the helicopter flying

forward with the least drag. Trim is indicated by a yaw string

in the center, or a centered ball on a turn and slip indicator. A

yaw string (also referred to as a slip string) is a tool used to

indicate slip or skid during flight. It is simply a string attached

to the nose or canopy of an aircraft so that it is visible to the

pilot during flight. The string measures sideslip and offers

a visual cue to the pilot in order to make yaw corrections.

9-4

Inertia

HCL

Figure 9-2. During a level, coordinated turn, the rate of turn

is commensurate with the angle of bank used, and inertia and

horizontal component of lift (HCL) are equal.

Skid

Inertia

HCL

Slip

Inertia

HCL

Figure 9-3. During a slip, the rate of turn is too low for the angle

of bank used, and the horizontal component of lift (HCL) exceeds

inertia.

Figure 9-4. During a skid, the rate of turn is too great for the

angle of bank used, and inertia exceeds the horizontal component

of lift (HCL).

How fast the helicopter banks depends on how much lateral

cyclic pressure is applied. How far the helicop ter banks (the

steepness of the bank) depends on how long the cyclic is

displaced. After establishing the proper bank angle, return

the cyclic toward the neutral position. When the bank is

established, returning the cyclic to neutral (or holding it

inclined relative to the horizon) will maintain the helicopter

at that bank angle. Increase the collective and throttle to

maintain altitude and rpm. As the torque increases, increase

the proper antitorque pedal pressure to maintain longi tudinal

trim. Depending on the degree of bank, addi tional forward

cyclic pressure may be required to maintain airspeed.

Rolling out of the turn to straight-and-level flight is the same

as the entry into the turn, except that pressure on the cyclic

is applied in the opposite direction. Since the helicopter

continues to turn as long as there is any bank, start the rollout

before reaching the desired heading.

The discussion on level turns is equally applicable to making

turns while climbing or descending. The only difference is

that the helicopter is in a climbing or descending attitude

rather than that of level flight. If a so-called simultaneous

entry (entering a turn while, at the same time, climbing or

descending) is desired, merely combine the techniques of

both maneuvers—climb or descent entry and turn entry.

When recovering from a climbing or descending turn, the

desired heading and altitude are rarely reached at the same

time. If the heading is reached first, stop the turn and maintain

the climb or descent until reaching the desired altitude. On the

other hand, if the altitude is reached first, establish the level

flight attitude and continue the turn to the desired heading.

Slips

A slip occurs when the helicopter slides sideways toward the

center of the turn. [Figure 9-3] It is caused by an insufficient

amount of antitorque pedal in the direction of the turn,

or too much in the direction oppo site the turn, in relation

to the amount of power used. In other words, if you hold

improper antitorque pedal pres sure, which keeps the nose

from following the turn, the helicopter slips sideways toward

the center of the turn.

Skids

A skid occurs when the helicopter slides sideways away from

the center of the turn. [Figure 9-4] It is caused by too much

antitorque pedal pressure in the direction of the turn, or by

too little in the direction opposite the turn in relation to the

amount of power used. If the helicopter is forced to turn faster

with increased pedal pressure instead of by increasing the

degree of the bank, it skids sideways away from the center

of the turn instead of flying in its normal curved path.

In summary, a skid occurs when the rate of turn is too great

for the amount of bank being used, and a slip occurs when

the rate of turn is too low for the amount of bank being used.

[Figure 9-5]

9-5

30.0

29.929.8

I00 FEET

456

CALIBRATED

20,000 FEET

ALT

OFF

NAV

NET AVG

PULL

PUSH

DIST

ALT

PUSH

4 6

-2 -4

Acceleration

G UNITS

N 30 60 E 120 150

STEER

FOR

S 210 240 W 300 330

STEER

RADIO

FOR

ON ON

16040

140

120 80

100

knots

knotswinter

50 60 70 80 90 100

knots SALTO

−

PWR

FNCN

SEL

VOL BATT

KNOTS

PUSH

30.0

29.929.8

I00 FEET

456

CALIBRATED

20,000 FEET

ALT

OFF

NAV

NET AVG

PULL

PUSH

DIST

ALT

PUSH

4 6

-2 -4

Acceleration

G UNITS

N 30 60 E 120 150

STEER

FOR

S 210 240 W 300 330

STEER

RADIO

FOR

ON ON

16040

140

120 80

100

knots

knotswinter

50 60 70 80 90 100

knots SALTO

−

PWR

FNCN

SEL

VOL BATT

KNOTS

PUSH

30.0

29.929.8

I00 FEET

456

CALIBRATED

20,000 FEET

ALT

OFF

NAV

NET AVG

PULL

PUSH

DIST

ALT

PUSH

4 6

-2 -4

Acceleration

G UNITS

N 30 60 E 120 150

STEER

FOR

S 210 240 W 300 330

STEER

RADIO

FOR

ON ON

16040

140

120 80

100

knots

knotswinter

50 60 70 80 90 100

knots SALTO

−

PWR

FNCN

SEL

VOL BATT

KNOTS

PUSH

Slip

Skid

Coordinated

Yaw string

Figure 9-5. Cockpit view of a slip and skid.

Normal Climb

The entry into a climb from a hover has already been described

in the Normal Takeoff from a Hover subsection; there fore,

this discussion is limited to a climb entry from cruising flight.

Technique

To enter a climb in a helicopter while maintaining airspeed,

the first actions are increasing the collective and throttle,

and adjusting the pedals as necessary to maintain a centered

ball in the slip/skid indicator. Moving the collective up

requires a slight aft movement of the cyclic to direct all

of the increased power into lift and maintain the airspeed.

Remember, a helicopter can climb with the nose down and

descend with the nose up. Helicopter attitude changes mainly

reflect acceleration or deceleration, not climb or descent.

Therefore, the climb attitude is approximately the same as

level flight in a stable climb, depending on the aircraft’s

horizontal stabilizer design.

If the pilot wishes to climb faster, with a decreased airspeed,

then the climb can be initiated with aft cyclic. Depending

on initial or entry airspeed for the climb, the climb can be

accomplished without increasing the collective, if a much

slower airspeed is acceptable. However, as the airspeed

decreases, the airflow over the vertical fin decreases

necessitating more antitorque (left) pedal application.

To level off from a climb, start adjusting the attitude to the

level flight attitude a few feet prior to reaching the desired

altitude. The amount of lead depends on the rate of climb at

the time of level-off (the higher the rate of climb, the more

the lead). Generally, the lead is 10 percent of the climb rate.

For example, if the climb rate is 500 feet per minute (fpm),

you should lead the level-off by 50 feet.

To begin the level-off, apply forward cyclic to adjust and

maintain a level flight attitude, which can be slightly nose

low. Maintain climb power until the airspeed approaches the

desired cruising airspeed, then lower the collective to obtain

cruising power and adjust the throttle to obtain and maintain

cruising rpm. Throughout the level-off, maintain longitudinal

trim with the antitorque pedals.

Common Errors

1. Failure to maintain proper power and airspeed.

2. Holding too much or too little antitorque pedal.

3. In the level-off, decreasing power before adjusting the

nose to cruising attitude.

Normal Descent

A normal descent is a maneuver in which the helicop ter loses

altitude at a controlled rate in a controlled attitude.

Technique

To establish a normal descent from straight-and-level flight

at cruising airspeed, lower the collective to obtain proper

power, adjust the throttle to maintain rpm, and increase

right antitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading in a

counterclockwise rotor system (or left pedal pressure in a

clockwise system). If cruising airspeed is the same as or

slightly above descending air speed, simultaneously apply

the necessary cyclic pressure to obtain the approximate

descending attitude. If the pilot wants to decelerate, the

cyclic must be moved aft. If the pilot desires to descend with

increased airspeed, then forward cyclic is all that is required if

airspeed remains under the limit. As the helicopter stabilizes

at any forward airspeed, the fuselage attitude will streamline

due to the airflow over the horizontal stabilizer. As the

airspeed changes, the airflow over the vertical stabilizer or

fin changes, so the pedals must be adjusted for trim.

9-6

The pilot should always remember that the total lift and thrust

vectoring is controlled by the cyclic. If a certain airspeed

is desired, it will require a certain amount of cyclic and

collective movement for level flight. If the cyclic is moved,

the thrust-versus-lift ratio is changed. Aft cyclic directs

more power to lift, and altitude increases. Forward cyclic

directs more power to thrust, and airspeed increases. If the

collective is not changed and there is a change only in cyclic,

the total thrust to lift ratio does not change: aft cyclic results

in a climb, and forward cyclic results in a descent with the

corresponding airspeed changes.

To level off from the descent, lead the desired altitude

by approximately 10 percent of the rate of descent. For

example, a 500-fpm rate of descent would require a 50-foot

lead. At this point, increase the collective to obtain cruising

power, adjust the throttle to maintain rpm, and increase left

antitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading (right pedal

pressure in a clockwise rotor system). Adjust the cyclic to

obtain cruising airspeed and a level flight atti tude as the

desired altitude is reached.

Common Errors

1. Failure to maintain constant angle of decent dur ing

training.

2. Failure to level-off the aircraft sufficiently, which

results in recovery below the desired altitude.

3. Failure to adjust antitorque pedal pressures for changes

in power.

Vertical Takeoff to a Hover

A vertical takeoff to a hover involves flying the helicopter

from the ground vertically to a skid height of two to three

feet, while maintaining a constant heading. Once the desired

skid height is achieved, the helicopter should remain nearly

motionless over a reference point at a constant altitude and

on a constant heading. The maneuver requires a high degree

of concentration and coordination.

Technique

The pilot on the controls needs to clear the area left, right,

and above to perform a vertical takeoff to a hover. The

pilot should remain focused outside the aircraft and obtain

clearance to take off from the controlling tower. If necessary,

the pilot who is not on the controls assists in clearing the

aircraft and provides adequate warning of any obstacles and

any unannounced or unusual drift/altitude changes.

Heading control, direction of turn, and rate of turn at hover

are all controlled by using the pedals. Hover height, rate of

ascent, and the rate of descent are controlled by using the

collective. Helicopter position and the direction of travel are

controlled by the cyclic.

After receiving the proper clearance and ensuring that the

area is clear of obstacles and traffic, begin the maneuver with

the collective in the down position and the cyclic in a neutral

position, or slightly into the wind. Very slowly increase the

collective until the helicopter becomes light on the skids or

wheels. As collective and torque increases, antitorque must

be adjusted as well. Therefore, as the aircraft begins to get

light on the landing gear, apply appropriate antitorque pedal

to maintain aircraft heading. Continue to apply pedals as

necessary to maintain heading and coordinate the cyclic for

a vertical ascent. As the helicopter slowly leaves the ground,

check for proper attitude control response and helicopter

center of gravity. A slow ascent will allow stopping if

responses are outside the normal parameters indicating hung

or entangled landing gear, center of gravity problems, or

control issues. If a roll or tilt begin, decrease the collective

and determine the cause of the roll or tilt. Upon reaching the

desired hover altitude, adjust the flight controls as necessary

to maintain position over the intended hover area. Student

pilots should be reminded that while at a hover, the helicopter

is rarely ever level. Helicopters usually hover left side low

due to the tail rotor thrust being counteracted by the main

rotor tilt. A nose low or high condition is generally caused

by loading. Once stabilized, check the engine instruments

and note the power required to hover.

Excessive movement of any flight control requires a change

in the other flight controls. For example, if the helicopter

drifts to one side while hovering, the pilot naturally moves

the cyclic in the opposite direction. When this is done,

part of the vertical thrust is diverted, resulting in a loss of

altitude. To maintain altitude, increase the collective. This

increases drag on the blades and tends to slow them down. To

counteract the drag and maintain rpm, increase the throttle.

Increased throttle means increased torque, so the pilot must

add more pedal pressure to maintain the heading. This can

easily lead to overcontrolling the helicopter. However, as

level of proficiency increases, prob lems associated with

overcontrolling decrease. Helicopter controls are usually

more driven by pressure than by gross control movements.

Common Errors

1. Failing to ascend vertically as the helicopter becomes

airborne.

2. Pulling excessive collective to become airborne,

causing the helicopter to gain too much altitude.

3. Overcontrolling the antitorque pedals, which not only

changes the heading of the helicopter, but also changes

the rpm.

9-7

4. Reducing throttle rapidly in situations in which

proper rpm has been exceeded, usually resulting in

exaggerated heading changes and loss of lift, resulting

in loss of altitude.

5. Failing to ascend slowly.

Hovering

A stationary hover is a maneuver in which the helicopter is

main tained in nearly motionless flight over a reference point

at a constant altitude and on a constant heading.

Technique

To maintain a hover over a point, use sideview and peripheral

vision to look for small changes in the helicopter’s attitude

and altitude. When these changes are noted, make the

necessary con trol inputs before the helicopter starts to

move from the point. To detect small variations in altitude

or position, the main area of visual attention needs to be

some distance from the aircraft, using various points on the

helicopter or the tip-path plane as a reference. Looking too

closely or looking down leads to overcontrolling. Obviously,

in order to remain over a certain point, know where the point

is, but do not focus all attention there.

As with a takeoff, the pilot controls altitude with the collec-

tive and maintains a constant rpm with the throttle. The cyclic

is used to maintain the helicopter’s position; the pedals, to

control heading. To maintain the helicopter in a stabilized

hover, make small, smooth, coordinated corrections. As the

desired effect occurs, remove the correction in order to stop the

helicopter’s movement. For example, if the helicopter begins

to move rearward, apply a small amount of forward cyclic

pressure. However, neutralize this pres sure just before the

helicopter comes to a stop, or it will begin to move forward.

After experience is gained, a pilot develops a certain “feel”

for the helicopter. Small deviations can be felt and seen,

so you can make the corrections before the helicopter

actually moves. A certain relaxed looseness develops, and

controlling the helicopter becomes sec ond nature, rather than

a mechanical response.

Common Errors

1. Tenseness and slow reactions to movements of the

helicopter.

2. Failure to allow for lag in cyclic and collective pitch,

which leads to overcontrolling. It is very common for

a student to get ahead of the helicopter. Due to inertia,

it requires some small time period for the helicopter

to respond.

3. Confusing attitude changes for altitude changes, which

results in improper use of the controls.

4. Hovering too high, creating a hazardous flight

condition. The height velocity chart should be

referenced to determine the maximum skid height

to hover and safely recover the helicopter should a

malfunction occur.

5. Hovering too low, resulting in occasional touch down.

6. Becoming overly confident over prepared surfaces

when taking off to a hover. Be aware that dynamic

rollover accidents usually occur over a level surface.

Hovering Turn

A hovering turn is a maneuver performed at hovering height

in which the nose of the helicopter is rotated either left or

right while maintaining position over a reference point on the

surface. Hovering turns can also be made around the mast or

tail of the aircraft. The maneuver requires the coordination

of all flight controls and demands pre cise control near the

surface. A pilot should maintain a constant altitude, rate of

turn, and rpm.

Technique

Initiate the turn in either direction by applying anti-torque

pedal pressure toward the desired direction. It should be noted

that during a turn to the left, more power is required because

left pedal pressure increases the pitch angle of the tail rotor,

which, in turn, requires additional power from the engine. A

turn to the right requires less power. (On helicopters with a

clock wise rotating main rotor, right pedal increases the pitch

angle and, therefore, requires more power.)

As the turn begins, use the cyclic as necessary (usually into

the wind) to keep the helicopter over the desired spot. To

continue the turn, add more pedal pressure as the helicopter

turns to the cross wind position. This is because the wind is

striking the tail surface and tail rotor area, making it more

difficult for the tail to turn into the wind. As pedal pressures

increase due to crosswind forces, increase the cyclic pressure

into the wind to maintain position. Use the collective with the

throttle to maintain a constant altitude and rpm. [Figure 9-6]

After the 90° portion of the turn, decrease pedal pressure

slightly to maintain the same rate of turn. Approaching the

180°, or downwind portion, anticipate opposite pedal pressure

due to the tail moving from an upwind position to a down-

wind position. At this point, the rate of turn has a ten dency

to increase at a rapid rate due to the tendency of the tail

surfaces to weathervane. Because of the tailwind condition,

9-8

Pedal

Some left in hover, more

left to start turn to left

Collective

Adjust collective as

necessary to maintain

proper hover height

Throttle

As necessary to

maintain rpm

Normally left pedal

application requires

more throttle

Pedal

Most left pressure in

turn

Collective

Adjust collective as

necessary to maintain

proper hover height

Throttle

As necessary to

maintain rpm

Normally left pedal

application requires

more throttle

Pedal

Changing from left to

right pressure

Collective

Adjust collective as

necessary to maintain

proper hover height

Throttle

As necessary to

maintain rpm

Normally left pedal

application requires

more throttle

Pedal

Most right pedal

pressure in turn

Collective

Adjust collective as

necessary to maintain

proper hover height

Throttle

As necessary to

maintain rpm

Pedal

Some right to stop turn,

then left to maintain

heading

Collective

Adjust collective as

necessary to maintain

proper hover height

Throttle

As necessary to

maintain rpm

Normally left pedal

application requires

more throttle

Cyclic—Forward Cyclic—Right Cyclic—Rearward Cyclic—Left Cyclic—Forward

WIND

Figure 9-6. Left turns in helicopters with a counterclockwise rotating main rotor are more difficult to execute because the tail rotor

demands more power. This requires you to compensate with additional left pedal and increased throttle. Refer to this graphic throughout

the remainder of the discussion on a hovering turn to the left.

hold rearward cyclic pressure to keep the helicopter over

the same spot.

The horizontal stabilizer has a tendency to lift the tail during

a tailwind condition. This is the most difficult portion of

the hovering turn. Horizontal and vertical stabilizers have

several different designs and locations, including the canted

stabilizers used on some Hughes and Schweizer helicopters.

The primary purpose of the vertical stabilizer is to unload

the work of the antitorque system and to aid in trimming the

helicopter in flight should the antitorque system fail. The

horizontal stabilizer provides for a more usable CG range

and aids in trimming the helicopter longitudinally.

Because of the helicopter’s tendency to weathervane,

maintaining the same rate of turn from the 180° posi tion

actually requires some pedal pressure opposite the direction

of turn. If a pilot does not apply opposite pedal pressure,

the helicopter tends to turn at a faster rate. The amount of

pedal pressure and cyclic deflection throughout the turn

depends on the wind velocity. As the turn is finished on the

upwind heading, apply opposite pedal pressure to stop the

turn. Gradually apply forward cyclic pressure to keep the

helicopter from drifting.

Control pressures and direction of application change

continuously throughout the turn. The most dramatic change

is the pedal pressure (and corresponding power requirement)

necessary to control the rate of turn as the helicopter moves

through the downwind portion of the maneuver.

Turns can be made in either direction; however, in a high

wind condition, the tail rotor may not be able to produce

enough thrust, which means the pilot cannot control a turn

to the right in a counterclockwise rotor system. Therefore,

if control is ever question able, first attempt to make a 90°

turn to the left. If sufficient tail rotor thrust exists to turn

the helicopter crosswind in a left turn, a right turn can be

successfully controlled. The opposite applies to helicopters

with clockwise rotor systems. In this case, start the turn to

the right. Hovering turns should be avoided in winds strong

enough to preclude sufficient aft cyclic control to maintain

the helicopter on the selected surface reference point

when headed downwind. Check the flight manual for the

manufacturer’s recom mendations for this limitation.

9-9

A O M

CLUTCH MR

TEMP

CHIP

STARTER

CHIP

lOW

FUEL

LOW

RPM

26 26

FUEL

245 II5

I00

OBS

333

21 15

NAV

VERTICAL SPEED

100 FEET PER MINUTE

DOWN

3024

I2 6

2 MIN TURN

DC ELEC

L R

30.0

29.929.8

I00 FEET

456

CALIBRATED

20,000 FEET

ALT

20 20

I0 I0

20 20

TESTSTBY PWR

IN Hg

ALg.

MANFOLD

PRESS

20 30

6070

100

0 10

MPH

KNOTS

120

110

100

90 80 70

3020

110

100

110

100

E R

%RPM

Reference point

Figure 9-7. To maintain a straight ground track, use two reference

points in line and at some distance in front of the helicopter.

Reference point

Figure 9-8. The key to hovering sideward is establishing at least

two reference points that help maintain a straight track over the

ground while keeping a constant heading.

2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting

in excessive heading change.

3. Failure to maintain desired hovering height.

4. Failure to maintain proper rpm.

5. Failure to maintain alignment with direction of travel.

Hovering—Sideward Flight

Sideward hovering flight may be necessary to move the

helicopter to a specific area when conditions make it

impossible to use forward flight. During the maneu ver,

a constant groundspeed, altitude, and heading should be

maintained.

Technique

Before starting sideward hovering flight, ensure the area

for the hover is clear, especially at the tail rotor. Constantly

monitor hover height and tail rotor clearance during all

hovering maneuvers to prevent dynamic rollover or tail

rotor strikes to the ground. Then, pick two points of in-line

reference in the direction of sideward hovering flight to help

maintain the proper ground track. These reference points

should be kept in line throughout the maneuver. [Figure 9-8]

Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height by

applying cyclic toward the side in which the movement is

desired. As the movement begins, return the cyclic toward the

neutral position to maintain low groundspeed—no faster than

a brisk walk. Throughout the maneuver, maintain a constant

groundspeed and ground track with cyclic. Maintain heading,

Common Errors

1. Failing to maintain a slow, constant rate of turn.

2. Failing to maintain position over the reference point.

3. Failing to maintain rpm within normal range.

4. Failing to maintain constant altitude.

5. Failing to use the antitorque pedals properly.

Hovering—Forward Flight

Forward hovering flight is normally used to move a helicopter

to a specific location, and it may begin from a stationary

hover. During the maneuver, constant groundspeed, altitude,

and heading should be maintained.

Technique

Before starting, pick out two references directly in front and

in line with the helicopter. These reference points should be

kept in line throughout the maneuver. [Figure 9-7]

Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height by

applying forward pressure on the cyclic. As movement

begins, return the cyclic toward the neutral position to

maintain low groundspeed—no faster than a brisk walk.

Throughout the maneuver, maintain a constant groundspeed

and path over the ground with the cyclic, a constant heading

with the antitorque pedals, altitude with the collective, and

the proper rpm with the throttle.

To stop the forward movement, apply rearward cyclic

pressure until the helicopter stops. As forward motion stops,

return the cyclic to the neutral position to pre vent rearward

movement. Forward movement can also be stopped by

simply applying rearward pressure to level the helicopter

and allowing it to drift to a stop.

Common Errors

1. Exaggerated movement of the cyclic, resulting in

erratic movement over the surface.

9-10

Hover taxi (25 feet or less)

Poor surface conditions for skid type helicopters

Figure 9-9. Hover taxi.

which in this maneuver is perpendicular to the ground track,

with the antitorque pedals, and a constant altitude with the

collective. Use the throttle to maintain the proper operating

rpm. Be aware that the nose tends to weathervane into the

wind. Changes in the pedal position will change the rpm

and must be corrected by collective and/or throttle changes

to maintain altitude.

To stop the sideward movement, apply cyclic pres sure in

the direction opposite to that of movement and hold it until

the helicopter stops. As motion stops, return the cyclic to

the neutral position to prevent movement in the opposite

direction. Applying sufficient opposite cyclic pressure to

level the helicopter may also stop sideward move ment. The

helicopter then drifts to a stop.

Common Errors

1. Exaggerated movement of the cyclic, resulting in

overcontrolling and erratic movement over the surface.

2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting

in excessive heading change.

3. Failure to maintain desired hovering height.

4. Failure to maintain proper rpm.

5. Failure to make sure the area is clear prior to starting

the maneuver.

Hovering—Rearward Flight

Rearward hovering flight may be necessary to move the

helicopter to a specific area when the situation is such that

forward or sideward hovering flight cannot be used. During

the maneuver, maintain a constant groundspeed, altitude, and

heading. Due to the limited visibility behind a helicopter, it

is important that the area behind the helicopter be cleared

before beginning the maneuver. Use of ground personnel is

rec ommended.

Technique

Before starting rearward hovering flight, pick out two

reference points in front of, and in line with the heli copter

just like hovering for ward. [Figure 9-7] The movement of

the helicopter should be such that these points remain in line.

Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height

by applying rearward pressure on the cyclic. After the

movement has begun, position the cyclic to maintain a slow

groundspeed—no faster than a brisk walk. Throughout the

maneuver, maintain constant ground speed and ground track

with the cyclic, a constant heading with the antitorque pedals,

constant altitude with the collective, and the proper rpm with

the throttle.

To stop the rearward movement, apply forward cyclic and

hold it until the helicopter stops. As the motion stops, return

the cyclic to the neutral position. Also, as in the case of

forward and sideward hovering flight, opposite cyclic can

be used to level the helicopter and let it drift to a stop. Tail

rotor clearance must be maintained. Generally, a higher-than-

normal hover altitude is preferred.

Common Errors

1. Exaggerated movement of the cyclic resulting in

overcontrolling and an uneven movement over the

surface.

2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, resulting

in excessive heading change.

3. Failure to maintain desired hovering height.

4. Failure to maintain proper rpm.

5. Failure to make sure the area is clear prior to starting

the maneuver.

Taxiing

Taxiing refers to operations on or near the surface of taxiways

or other prescribed routes. Helicopters utilize three different

types of taxiing.

Hover Taxi

A hover taxi is used when operating below 25 feet above

ground level (AGL). [Figure 9-9] Since hover taxi is just like

forward, sideward, or rearward hovering flight, the technique

to perform it is not presented here.

Air Taxi

An air taxi is preferred when movements require greater

distances within an airport or heliport bound ary. [Figure 9-10]

In this case, fly to the new location; however, it is expected

that the helicopter will remain below 100 feet AGL with

an appropriate airspeed and will avoid over flight of other

aircraft, vehicles, and personnel.

9-11

Air taxi (100 feet or less)

Faster travel

Figure 9-10. Air taxi.

Surface taxi

Less rotor downwash

Figure 9-11. Surface taxi.

Technique

Before starting, determine the appropriate airspeed and

altitude combination to remain out of the cross-hatched or

shaded areas of the height/velocity diagram (see Figure 7-1).

Additionally, be aware of crosswind conditions that could

lead to loss of tail rotor effectiveness. Pick out two references

directly in front of the helicopter for the ground path desired.

These reference points should be kept in line throughout the

maneuver.

Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering height by

applying forward pressure on the cyclic. As move ment

begins, attain the desired airspeed with the cyclic. Control the

desired altitude with the collective and rpm with the throttle.

Throughout the maneuver, maintain a desired groundspeed

and ground track with the cyclic, a constant heading with

antitorque pedals, the desired altitude with the collective,

and proper operating rpm with the throttle.

To stop the forward movement, apply aft cyclic pressure to

reduce forward speed. Simultaneously lower the col lective to

initiate a descent to hover altitude. As forward motion stops,

return the cyclic to the neutral posi tion to prevent rearward

movement. As approaching the proper hover altitude, increase

the collective as necessary to stop descent at hover altitude

(much like a quick stop maneuver (see page 10-4)).

Common Errors

1. Erratic movement of the cyclic, resulting in improper

airspeed control and erratic movement over the

surface.

2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control, result ing

in excessive heading change.

3. Failure to maintain desired altitude.

4. Failure to maintain proper rpm.

5. Overflying parked aircraft causing possible dam age

from rotor downwash.

6. Flying in the cross-hatched or shaded area of the

height/velocity diagram.

7. Flying in a crosswind that could lead to loss of tail

rotor effectiveness.

8. Excessive tail-low attitudes.

9. Excessive power used or required to stop.

10. Failure to maintain alignment with direction of travel.

Surface Taxi

A surface taxi is used to minimize the effects of rotor

downwash in wheel-type helicopters. [Figure 9-11] Surface

taxiing in skid type helicopters is generally not recommended

due to the high risk of dynamic rollover; for more information,

refer to Chapter 11, Helicopter Emergencies and Hazards.

Technique

The helicopter should be in a stationary position on the surface

with the collective full down and the rpm the same as that

used for a hover. This rpm should be maintained throughout

the maneuver. Then, move the cyclic slightly forward and

apply gradual upward pres sure on the collective to move

the helicopter forward along the surface. Use the antitorque

pedals to maintain heading and the cyclic to maintain ground

track. The collective controls starting, stopping, and speed

while taxiing. The higher the collective pitch, the faster the

taxi speed; however, do not taxi faster than a brisk walk. If

the helicopter is equipped with brakes, use them to help slow

down. Do not use the cyclic to control groundspeed.

During a crosswind taxi, hold the cyclic into the wind a

sufficient amount to eliminate any drifting movement.

Common Errors

1. Improper use of cyclic.

2. Failure to use antitorque pedals for heading control.

9-12

1 2

Figure 9-12. The helicopter takes several positions during a normal takeoff from hover.

3. Improper use of the controls during crosswind

operations.

4. Failure to maintain proper rpm.

Normal Takeoff from a Hover

A normal takeoff from a hover is an orderly transition to

forward flight and is executed to increase altitude safely and

expeditiously. Before initiating a takeoff, the pilot should

ensure that the proper checklist has been completed and

the helicopter systems are within normal limits. During the

takeoff, fly a pro file that avoids the cross-hatched or shaded

areas of the height/velocity diagram.

Technique

Refer to Figure 9-12 (position 1). Bring the helicopter to a

hover and perform a hover and systems check, which includes

power, balance, and flight controls prior to continuing flight.

The power check should include an evaluation of the amount

of excess power available; that is, the difference between the

power being used to hover and the power available at the

existing altitude and temperature conditions. The balance

condition of the helicopter is indicated by the position

of the cyclic when maintaining a stationary hover. Wind

necessitates some cyclic deflection, but there should not be

an extreme deviation from neutral. Flight controls must move

freely, and the hel icopter should respond normally. Then,

visually clear the surrounding area.

Start the helicopter moving by smoothly and slowly eas ing the

cyclic forward (position 2). As the helicopter starts to move

forward, increase the collective, as nec essary, to prevent the

helicopter from sinking and adjust the throttle to maintain

rpm. The increase in power requires an increase in the proper

antitorque pedal to maintain heading. Maintain a straight

takeoff path throughout the takeoff.

While accelerating through effec tive translational lift (position

3), the helicopter begins to climb, and the nose tends to rise

due to increased lift. At this point, adjust the collective to

obtain normal climb power and apply enough forward cyclic

to overcome the tendency of the nose to rise. At position 4,

hold an attitude that allows a smooth acceleration toward

climb ing airspeed and a commensurate gain in altitude so that

the takeoff profile does not take the helicopter through any

of the cross-hatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity

diagram. As airspeed increases (position 5), place the aircraft

in trim and allow a crab to take place to maintain ground track

and a more favorable climb configuration. As the helicopter

continues to climb and accel erate to best rate-of-climb, apply

aft cyclic pressure to raise the nose smoothly to the normal

climb attitude.

Common Errors

1. Failing to use sufficient collective pitch to pre vent

loss of altitude prior to attaining transla tional lift.

2. Adding power too rapidly at the beginning of the

transition from hovering to forward flight without

forward cyclic compensation, causing the helicopter

to gain excessive altitude before acquiring airspeed.

3. Assuming an extreme nose-down attitude near the

surface in the transition from hovering to forward

flight.

4. Failing to maintain a straight flightpath over the

surface (ground track).

5. Failing to maintain proper airspeed during the climb.

6. Failing to adjust the throttle to maintain proper rpm.

7. Failing to transition to a level crab to maintain ground

track.

9-13

Helicopter

side movement Wind movement

Wind Movement

Helicopter HeadingGround Track

Figure 9-13. During a slip, the rotor disk is tilted into the wind.

Figure 9-14. To compensate for wind drift at altitude, crab the

helicopter into the wind.

Normal Takeoff from the Surface

Normal takeoff from the surface is used to move the helicopter

from a position on the surface into effective translational lift

and a normal climb using a minimum amount of power. If the

surface is dusty or covered with loose snow, this technique

provides the most favorable visibility conditions and reduces

the possibility of debris being ingested by the engine.

Technique

Place the helicopter in a stationary position on the sur face.

Lower the collective to the full down position, and reduce

the rpm below operating rpm. Visually clear the area and

select terrain features or other objects to aid in maintaining

the desired track during takeoff and climb out. Increase the

throttle to the proper rpm, and raise the collective slowly

until the helicopter is light on the skids. Hesitate momentarily

and adjust the cyclic and antitorque pedals, as neces sary, to

prevent any surface movement. Continue to apply upward

collective. As the helicopter leaves the ground, use the

cyclic, as necessary, to begin forward movement as altitude

is gained. Continue to acceler ate. As effective translational

lift is attained, the helicopter begins to climb. Adjust attitude

and power, if necessary, to climb in the same manner as a

takeoff from a hover. A second, less efficient, but acceptable,

technique, is to attempt a vertical takeoff to evaluate if power

or lift is sufficient to clear obstructions. This allows the

helicopter to be returned to the takeoff position if required.

Common Errors

1. Departing the surface in an attitude that is too nose-

low. This situation requires the use of exces sive power

to initiate a climb.

2. Using excessive power combined with a level attitude,

which causes a vertical climb, unless needed for

obstructions and landing considerations.

3. Application of the collective that is too abrupt when

departing the surface, causing rpm and heading control

errors.

Crosswind Considerations During Takeoffs

If the takeoff is made during crosswind conditions, the

helicopter is flown in a slip during the early stages of the

maneuver. [Figure 9-13] The cyclic is held into the wind a

sufficient amount to maintain the desired ground track for

the takeoff. The heading is maintained with the use of the

antitorque pedals. In other words, the rotor is tilted into the

wind so that the sideward movement of the helicopter is

just enough to counter act the crosswind effect. To prevent

the nose from turning in the direction of the rotor tilt, it is

necessary to increase the antitorque pedal pressure on the

side opposite the cyclic.

After approximately 50 feet of altitude is gained, make a

coordinated turn into the wind to maintain the desired ground

track. This is called crabbing into the wind. The stronger the

crosswind, the more the helicopter has to be turned into the

wind to maintain the desired ground track. [Figure 9-14]

Ground Reference Maneuvers

Ground reference maneuvers may be used as training

exercises to help develop a division of attention between

the flightpath and ground references, and while controlling

9-14

the helicopter and watching for other air craft in the vicinity.

Other examples of ground reference maneuvers are flights

for photographic or observation purposes, such as pipe line

or power line checks. Prior to each maneuver, a clearing turn

should be done to ensure the area is free of conflicting traffic.

Rectangular Course

The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which the

ground track of the helicopter is kept equidistant from the

sides of a selected rectangular area. While performing the

maneuver, the altitude and air speed should be held constant.

The rectangular course helps develop recognition of a drift

toward or away from a line parallel to the intended ground

track. This is helpful in recognizing drift toward or from an

airport runway during the various legs of the airport traffic

pattern and is also useful in observation and photographic

flights.

Technique

Maintaining ground track while trying to fly a straight line

can be very difficult for new pilots to do. It is important to

understand the effects of the wind and how to compensate

for this. For this maneuver, pick a square or rectangular

field, or an area bounded on four sides by section lines or

roads, with sides approximately a mile in length. The area

selected should be well away from other air traffic. Fly the

maneuver approximately 500 to 1,000 feet above the ground

as appropriate. If the student finds it difficult to maintain a

proper ground track at that higher altitude, lower the altitude

for better ground reference until they feel more comfortable

and are able to grasp the concept better. Altitude can be raised

up to 1,000 feet as proficiency improves.

Fly the helicopter parallel to and at a uniform distance, about

one-fourth to one-half mile, from the field boundaries, and

not directly above the boundaries. For best results, position

flightpath outside the field boundaries just far enough away

that they may be easily observed from either pilot seat by

looking out the side of the helicopter. If an attempt is made

to fly directly above the edges of the field, there will be no

usable reference points to start and complete the turns. In

addition, the closer the track of the helicop ter is to the field

boundaries, the steeper the bank necessary at the turning

points. The edges of the selected field should be seen while

seated in a normal position and looking out the side of the

helicopter during either a left-hand or right-hand course. The

distance of the ground track from the edges of the field should

be the same regardless of whether the course is flown to the

left or right. All turns should be started when the helicopter is

abeam the corners of the field boundaries. The bank nor mally

should not exceed 30°–45° in light winds. Strong winds may

require more bank.

The pilot should understand that when trying to fly a straight

line and maintain a specific heading, aircraft heading must be

adjusted in order to compensate for the winds and stay on the

proper ground track. Also, keep in mind that a constant scan

of flight instruments and outside references aid in maintaining

proper ground track.

Although the rectangular course may be entered from any

direction, this discussion assumes entry on a downwind

heading. [Figure 9-15] while approaching the field boundary

on the downwind leg, begin planning for an upcoming turn.

Since there is a tailwind on the downwind leg, the helicopter’s

groundspeed is increased (position 1). During the turn, the

wind causes the heli copter to drift away from the field. To

counteract this effect, the roll-in should be made at a fairly

fast rate with a relatively steep bank (position 2). This is

normally the steepest turn of the maneuver.

As the turn progresses, the tailwind component decreases,

which decreases the groundspeed. Consequently, the bank

angle and rate-of-turn must be reduced gradually to ensure

that upon completion of the turn, the crosswind ground track

continues to be the same distance from the edge of the field.

Upon completion of the turn, the helicopter should be level

and crabbed into the wind in order to maintain the proper

ground track. Keep in mind that in order to maintain proper

ground track the helicopter may have to be flown almost

sideways depending on the amount of wind. The forward

cyclic that is applied for airspeed will be in the direction of

the intended flight path. For this example, it will be in the

direction of the downwind corner of the field. However, since

the wind is now pushing the helicopter away from the field,

establish the proper drift correction by heading slightly into

the wind. Therefore, the turn should be greater than a 90°

change in heading (position 3). If the turn has been made

properly, the field boundary again appears to be one-fourth

to one-half mile away. While on the crosswind leg, the wind

correction should be adjusted, as necessary, to maintain a

uniform distance from the field boundary (position 4).

As the next field boundary is being approached (position 5),

plan for the next turn. Since a wind correction angle is being

held into the wind and toward the field, this next turn requires

a turn of less than 90°. Since there is now a headwind, the

groundspeed decreases during the turn, the bank initially must

be medium and progressively decrease as the turn pro ceeds.

To complete the turn, time the rollout so that the helicopter

becomes level at a point aligned with the corner of the field

just as the longitudinal axis of the helicopter again becomes

parallel to the field boundary (position 6). The distance from

the field boundary should be the same as on the other sides

of the field.

9-15

Wind

Track with no wind correction

6 7 8

11 Turn more than 90°

Complete turn at boundary

Start turn

at boundary

Crab into wind

Start turn at boundaryNo crabComplete turn at boundary

Start turn

at boundary

Crab into wind

Complete turn at boundary

Start turn at boundary

Turn less than 90°

Enter 45° to downwind

Turn less than 90°—roll out with crab established

Complete turn at boundary

No crab

Turn more than 90°—roll

out with crab established

Figure 9-15. Example of a rectangular course.

Point of steepest bank

Points of steepest bank

Points of shallowest bank

Wind

Figure 9-16. S-turns across a road.

Continue to evaluate each turn and determine the steepness

or shallowness based on the winds. It is also important to

remember that as the bank angles are adjusted in the turn,

the pilot is subsequently forced to make changes with the

flight controls.

Common Errors

1. Faulty entry technique.

2. Poor planning, orientation, and/or division of attention.

3. Uncoordinated flight control application.

4. Improper correction for wind drift.

5. Failure to maintain selected altitude and airspeed.

6. Selection of a ground reference with no suitable

emergency landing area within gliding distance.

7. Not flying a course parallel to the intended area (e.g.,

traffic pattern or square field).

S-Turns

Another training maneuver to use is the S-turn, which helps

correct for wind drift in turns. This maneuver requires turns

to the left and right.

Technique

9-16

The pilot can choose to use a road, a fence, or a railroad

for a reference line. Regardless of what is used, it should

be straight for a considerable distance and should extend as

nearly perpendicular to the wind as possible. The object of

S-turns is to fly a pattern of two half cir cles of equal size

on opposite sides of the reference line. [Figure 9-16] The

maneuver should be performed at a constant altitude between

500 and 800 feet above the terrain. As mentioned previously,

if the student pilot is having a difficult time maintaining the

proper altitude and airspeed, have him or her attempt the

S-turn at a lower altitude, providing better ground reference.

The discussion that follows is based on choosing a reference

line perpendicular to the wind and starting the maneuver with

the helicopter facing downwind.

As the helicopter crosses the reference line, immedi-

ately establish a bank. This initial bank is the steepest

used throughout the maneuver since the helicopter is

headed directly downwind and the groundspeed is greatest

(position 1). Gradually reduce the bank, as necessary, to

describe a ground track of a half circle. Time the turn so

that, as the rollout is completed, the helicopter is crossing

the reference line perpendicular to it and head ing directly

upwind (position 2). Immediately enter a bank in the opposite

direction to begin the second half of the “S” (position 3).

Since the helicopter is now on an upwind heading, this bank

(and the one just completed before crossing the reference

line) is the shallowest in the maneuver. Gradually increase

the bank, as necessary, to describe a ground track that is a

half circle identical in size to the one previously completed on

the other side of the refer ence line (position 4). The steepest

bank in this turn should be attained just prior to rollout when

the helicopter is approaching the reference line nearest the

downwind heading. Time the turn so that as the rollout is

com plete, the helicopter is perpendicular to the reference

line and is again heading directly downwind (position 5).

In summary, the angle of bank required at any given

point in the maneuver is dependent on the ground speed.

The faster the groundspeed is, the steeper the bank is; the

slower the groundspeed is, the shallower the bank is. To

express it another way, the more nearly the helicopter is to a

downwind heading, the steeper the bank; the more nearly it

is to an upwind heading, the shallower the bank. In addition

to varying the angle of bank to correct for drift in order to

maintain the proper radius of turn, the helicopter must also

be flown with a drift correction angle (crab) in relation to its

ground track; except, of course, when it is on direct upwind

or downwind headings or there is no wind.

One would normally think of the fore and aft axis of the

heli copter as being tangent to the ground track pattern at

each point. However, this is not the case. During the turn on

the upwind side of the reference line (side from which the

wind is blowing), crab the nose of the heli copter toward the

outside of the circle. During the turn on the downwind side

of the reference line (side of the reference line opposite to the

direction from which the wind is blowing), crab the nose of

the helicopter toward the inside of the circle. In either case, it

is obvious that the helicopter is being crabbed into the wind

just as it is when trying to maintain a straight ground track.

The amount of crab depends on the wind velocity and how

close the helicopter is to a crosswind position. The stronger

the wind is, the greater the crab angle is at any given position

for a turn of a given radius. The more nearly the helicopter

is to a crosswind position, the greater the crab angle. The

maximum crab angle should be at the point of each half circle

farthest from the reference line.

A standard radius for S-turns cannot be specified, since the

radius depends on the airspeed of the helicopter, the velocity

of the wind, and the initial bank chosen for entry. The only

standard is crossing the ground reference line straight and

level and having equal radius semi-circles on both sides.

Common Errors

1. Using antitorque pedal pressures to assist turns.

2. Slipping or skidding in the turn.

3. An unsymmetrical ground track during S-turns across

a road.

4. Improper correction for wind drift.

5. Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.

6. Excessive bank angles.

Turns Around a Point

This training maneuver requires flying constant radius

turns around a preselected point on the ground using a bank

angle of approximately 30°–45°, while maintaining both

a constant altitude and the same distance from the point

throughout the maneuver. [Figure 9-17] The objective, as in

other ground reference maneuvers, is to develop the ability

to subconsciously control the helicopter while dividing

attention between flightpath, how the winds are affecting

the turn and ground references and watching for other air

traffic in the vicinity. This is also used in high reconnaissance,

observation, and photography flight.

Technique

The factors and principles of drift correction that are involved

in S-turns are also applicable to this maneu ver. As in other

ground track maneuvers, a constant radius around a point

requires the pilot to change the angle of bank constantly

and make numerous control changes to compensate for

9-17

Downwind half of circle

Upwind half of circle

Wind

Steepest bank

Shallowest bank

Shallower bank

Steeper bank

Figure 9-17. Turns around a point.

Takeoff leg (into the wind)1

Final approach leg5

Crosswind leg2

Base leg 4

Downwind leg3

Wind

Figure 9-18. A standard fixed-wing traffic pattern consists of left

turns, has five designated legs, and is flown at 1,000' AGL.

the wind. The closer the helicopter is to a direct downwind

heading at which the groundspeed is greatest, the steeper the

bank and the greater the rate of turn required to establish the

proper wind correc tion angle. The closer the helicopter is to

a direct upwind heading at which the groundspeed is least,

the shallower the bank and the lower the rate of turn required

to establish the proper wind correction angle. Therefore,

throughout the maneuver, the bank and rate of turn must

be varied gradually and in proportion to the groundspeed

corrections made for the wind.

The point selected for turns should be prominent and easily

distinguishable, yet small enough to present a precise

reference. Isolated trees, crossroads, or other similar small

landmarks are usually suitable. The point should be in an area

away from communities, livestock, or groups of people on

the ground to prevent possible annoyance or hazard to others.

Additionally, the area should be clear and suitable for any

emergency landings should they be required.

Just as S-turns require that the helicopter be turned into the

wind in addition to varying the bank, so do turns around a

point. During the downwind half of the circle, the helicopter’s

nose must be progressively turned toward the inside of the

circle; during the upwind half, the nose must be progressively

turned toward the outside. The downwind half of the turn

around the point may be compared to the downwind side of

the S-turn, while the upwind half of the turn around a point

may be compared to the upwind side of the S-turn.

Upon gaining experience in performing turns around a point

and developing a good understanding of the effects of wind

drift and varying of the bank angle and wind correction angle

as required, entry into the maneuver may be from any point.

When entering this maneuver at any point, the radius of the

turn must be carefully selected, taking into account the wind

velocity and groundspeed so that an excessive bank is not

required later to maintain the proper ground track.

Common Errors

1. Faulty entry technique.

2. Poor planning, orientation, or division of attention.

3. Uncoordinated flight control application.

4. Improper correction for wind drift.

5. Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.

6. Failure to maintain an equal distance around the point.

7. Excessive bank angles.

Traffic Patterns

A traffic pattern promotes safety by establishing a common

track to help pilots determine their landing order and provide

common reference. A traffic pattern is also useful to control

the flow of traffic, par ticularly at airports without operating

control towers. It affords a measure of safety, separation,

protection, and administrative control over arriving,

departing, and circling aircraft. Due to specialized operating

character istics, airplanes and helicopters do not mix well

in the same traffic environment. At multiple-use airports,

regulation states that helicopters should always avoid the

flow of fixed-wing traf fic. To do this, be familiar with the

patterns typically flown by airplanes. In addition, learn how

to fly these patterns in case air traf fic control (ATC) requests

a fixed-wing traffic pattern be flown. Traffic patterns are

initially taught during the day. Traffic patterns at night may

need to be adjusted; for more information, refer to Chapter

12, Night Operations.

9-18

Takeoff leg (into the wind)1

Final approach leg5

Crosswind leg 2

Base leg4

Downwind leg3

Wind

Figure 9-19. A standard helicopter traffic pattern consists of right

turns, has 5 designated legs, and is flown at 500' AGL.

A normal airplane traffic pattern is rectangular, has five named

legs, and a designated altitude, usually 1,000 feet AGL. While

flying the traffic pattern, pilots should always keep in mind

noise abatement rules and flying friendly to avoid dwellings

and livestock. A pattern in which all turns are to the left is

called a standard pattern. [Figure 9-18] The takeoff leg (item

1) normally consists of the aircraft’s flightpath after takeoff.

This leg is also called the departure leg. Turn to the crosswind

leg (item 2) after passing the departure end of the runway when

at a safe altitude. Fly the downwind leg (item 3) parallel to the

runway at the designated traffic pattern altitude and distance

from the runway. Begin the base leg (item 4) at a point selected

according to other traffic and wind conditions. If the wind is

very strong, begin the turn sooner than normal. If the wind

is light, delay the turn to base. The final approach (item 5)

is the path the air craft flies immediately prior to touchdown.

Flying a fixed wing traffic pattern at 1,000 feet AGL upon

the request of ATC should not be a problem for a helicopter

unless conducting specific maneuvers that require specific

altitudes. There are variations at different localities and at

airports with operating control towers. For example, ATC

may have airplanes in a left turn pattern (as airplane pilots

are usually seated in the left), seat and a right turn pattern for

helicopters (as those pilots are usually in the right seat). This

arrangement affords the best view from each of the respective

cockpits. Always consult the Airport/Facility Directory for

the traffic pattern procedures at your airport/heliport.

When approaching an airport with an operating control tower

in a helicopter, it is possible to expedite traffic by stating

intentions. The communication consists of:

1. The helicopter’s call sign, “Helicopter 8340J.”

2. The helicopter’s position, “10 miles west.”

3. The “request for landing and hover to ...”

To avoid the flow of fixed-wing traffic, the tower often

clears direct to an approach point or to a particular runway

intersection nearest the destination point. At uncontrolled

airports, if at all possible, adhere to standard practices and

patterns.

Traffic pattern entry procedures at an airport with an operating

control tower are specified by the controller. At uncontrolled

airports, traffic pattern altitudes and entry procedures may

vary according to established local procedures. Helicopter

pilots should be aware of the standard airplane traffic

pattern and avoid it. Generally, helicopters make a lower

altitude pattern opposite from the fixed wing pattern and

make their approaches to some point other than the runway

in use by the fixed wing traffic. Chapter 7 of the Airplane

flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-3 discusses this in greater

detail. For information concerning traffic pattern and landing

direction, utilize airport advisory service or UNICOM, when

available.

The standard departure procedure when using the fixed-

wing traffic pattern is usually a straight-out, down wind, or

right-hand departure. When a control tower is in operation,

request the type of departure desired. In most cases, helicopter

departures are made into the wind unless obstacles or traffic

dictate otherwise. At airports without an operating control

tower, comply with the departure procedures established for

that airport, if any.

A helicopter traffic pattern is flown at 500-1,000 feet AGL

depending on considerations such as terrain, obstacles, and

other aircraft traffic. [Figure 9-19] This keeps the helicopter

out of the flow of fixed-wing traffic. A helicopter may take

off from a helipad into the wind with a turn to the right after

300 feet AGL or as needed to be in range of forced landing

areas. When 500 feet AGL is attained, a right turn to parallel

the takeoff path is made for the downwind. Then, as the

intended landing point is about 45 degrees behind the abeam

position of the helicopter, a right turn is made, and a descent

is begun from downwind altitude to approximately 300 feet

AGL for a base leg.

As the helicopter nears the final approach path, the turn to

final should be made considering winds and obstructions.

Depending on obstructions and forced landing areas, the final

approach may need to be accomplished from as high as 500

feet AGL. The landing area should always be in sight and

the angle of approach should never be too high (indicating

that the base leg is too close) to the landing area or too low

(indicating that the landing area is too far away).

Approaches

An approach is the transition from traffic pattern alti tude

to either a hover or to the surface. The approach should

9-19

Imaginary centerline

Reference point

Wind

Figure 9-20. Plan the turn to final so the helicopter rolls out on an

imaginary extension of the centerline for the final approach path.

This path should neither angle to the landing area, as shown by

the helicopter on the left, nor require an S-turn, as shown by the

helicopter on the right.

terminate at the hover altitude with the rate of descent and

groundspeed reaching zero at the same time. Approaches

are categorized according to the angle of descent as normal,

steep, or shallow. In this chapter, concentration is on the

normal approach. Steep and shallow approaches are discussed

in the next chapter.

Use the type of approach best suited to the existing conditions.

These conditions may include obstacles, size and surface of

the landing area, density altitude, wind direction and speed,

and weight. Regardless of the type of approach, it should

always be made to a specific, predetermined landing spot.

Normal Approach to a Hover

A normal approach uses a descent angle of between 7° and

12°.

Technique

On final approach, at the recommended approach airspeed

and at approximately 300 feet AGL, the helicopter should

be on the correct ground track (or ground alignment) for the

intended landing site, but the axis of the helicopter does not

have to be aligned until about 50-100 feet AGL to facilitate

a controlled approach. [Figure 9-20] Just prior to reaching

the desired approach angle, begin the approach by lowering

the collective sufficiently to get the helicopter decelerating

and descending down the approach angle. With the decrease

in the collective, the nose tends to pitch down, requiring

aft cyclic to maintain the recommended approach airspeed

attitude. Adjust antitorque pedals, as necessary, to maintain

trim. Pilots should visualize the angle from the landing

point to the middle of the skids or landing gear underneath

them in the cockpit and maneuver the helicopter down that

imaginary slope until the helicopter is at a hover centered

over the landing point or touching down centered on the

landing point. The most important standard for a normal

approach is maintaining a consistent angle of approach to

the termination point. The collective controls the angle of

approach. Use the cyclic to control the rate of closure or how

fast the helicopter is moving towards the touchdown point.

Maintain entry airspeed until the apparent groundspeed and

rate of closure appear to be increasing. At this point, slowly

begin decelerating with slight aft cyclic, and smoothly lower

the collective to maintain approach angle. Use the cyclic to

maintain a rate of closure equivalent to a brisk walk.

At approximately 25 knots, depending on wind, the helicopter

begins to lose effective translational lift. To compensate for

loss of effective translational lift, increase the collective to

maintain the approach angle, while maintaining the proper

rpm. The increase of collective pitch tends to make the nose

rise, requiring forward cyclic to maintain the proper rate of

closure.

As the helicopter approaches the recommended hover

altitude, increase the collective sufficiently to maintain the

hover. Helicopters require near maximum power to land

because the inertia of the helicopter in a descent must be

overcome by lift in the rotor system. At the same time, apply

aft cyclic to stop any forward movement while controlling

the heading with antitorque pedals.

Common Errors

1. Failing to maintain proper rpm during the entire

approach.

2. Improper use of the collective in controlling the angle

of descent.

3. Failing to make antitorque pedal corrections to

compensate for collective changes during the

approach.

4. Maintaining a constant airspeed on final approach

9-20

instead of an apparent brisk walk.

5. Failing to simultaneously arrive at hovering height

and attitude with zero groundspeed.

6. Low rpm in transition to the hover at the end of the

approach.

7. Using too much aft cyclic close to the surface, which

may result in tail rotor strikes.

8. Failure to crab above 100’AGL and slip below

100’AGL.

Normal Approach to the Surface

A normal approach to the surface or a no-hover landing is

often used if loose snow or dusty surface conditions exist.

These situations could cause severely restricted visibility, or

the engine could possibly ingest debris when the heli copter

comes to a hover. The approach is the same as the normal

approach to a hover; however, instead of termi nating at a

hover, continue the approach to touchdown. Touchdown

should occur with the skids level, zero groundspeed, and a

rate of descent approaching zero.

Technique

As the helicopter nears the surface, increase the collec tive, as

necessary, to cushion the landing on the sur face, terminate in

a skids-level attitude with no forward movement.

Common Errors

1. Terminating to a hover, and then making a vertical

landing.

2. Touching down with forward movement.

3. Approaching too slow, requiring the use of exces sive

power during the termination.

4. Approaching too fast, causing a hard landing

5. Not maintaining skids aligned with direction of travel

at touchdown. Any movement or misalignment of the

skids or gear can induce dynamic rollover

Crosswind During Approaches

During a crosswind approach, crab into the wind. At

approximately 50-100 feet of altitude, use a slip to align the

fuselage with the ground track. The rotor is tilted into the

wind with cyclic pressure so that the sideward movement

of the helicopter and wind drift counteracts each other.

Maintain the heading and ground track with the antitorque

pedals. Under crosswind approaches, ground track is always

controlled by the cyclic movement. The heading of the

helicopter in hovering maneuvers is always controlled by

the pedals. The collective controls power, which is altitude

at a hover. This technique should be used on any type of

crosswind approach, whether it is a shallow, normal, or

steep approach.

Go-Around

A go-around is a procedure for remaining airborne after

an intended landing is discontinued. A go-around may be

necessary when:

• Instructed by the control tower.

• Traffic conflict occurs.

• The helicopter is in a position from which it is not

safe to continue the approach. Any time an approach

is uncomfortable, incorrect, or potentially dangerous,

abandon the approach. The deci sion to make a go-

around should be positive and initiated before a critical

situation develops. When the decision is made, carry it

out without hesitation. In most cases, when initiating

the go-around, power is at a low setting. Therefore,

the first response is to increase collective to takeoff

power. This movement is coordinated with the throttle

to maintain rpm, and with the proper antitorque pedal

to control heading. Then, establish a climb attitude

and maintain climb speed to go around for another

approach.

Chapter Summary

This chapter introduced basic flight maneuvers and the

techniques to perform each of them. Common errors and why

they happen were also described to help the pilot achieve a

better understanding of the maneuver.

10-1

Introduction

The maneuvers presented in this chapter require more skill

and understanding of the helicopter and the surrounding

environment. When performing these maneuvers, a pilot

is probably taking the helicopter to the edge of the safe

operating envelope. Therefore, if you are ever in doubt about

the outcome of the maneuver, abort the mission entirely or

wait for more favorable conditions.

Advanced Flight Maneuvers

Chapter 10

10-2

Reconnaissance Procedures

When planning to land or takeoff at an unfa miliar site,

gather as much information as possible about the area.

Reconnaissance techniques are ways of gathering this

information.

High Reconnaissance

The purpose of conducting a high reconnaissance is to

determine direction and speed of the wind, a touchdown

point, suitability of the landing area, approach and departure

axes, and obstacles for both the approach and departure.

The pilot should also give particular consideration to forced

landing areas in case of an emergency.

Altitude, airspeed, and flight pattern for a high recon naissance

are governed by wind and terrain features. It is important to

strike a balance between a reconnaissance conducted too high

and one too low. It should not be flown so low that a pilot

must divide attention between studying the area and avoiding

obstructions to flight. A high reconnaissance should be flown

at an alti tude of 300 to 500 feet above the surface. A general

rule to follow is to ensure that sufficient altitude is available

at all times to land into the wind in case of engine fail ure. In

addition, a 45° angle of observation generally allows the best

estimate of the height of barriers, the presence of obstacles,

the size of the area, and the slope of the terrain. Always

maintain safe altitudes and air speeds and keep a forced

landing area within reach whenever possible.

Low Reconnaissance

A low reconnaissance is accomplished during the approach to

the landing area. When flying the approach, verify what was

observed in the high recon naissance, and check for anything

new that may have been missed at a higher altitude, such as

wires and their supporting structures (poles, towers, etc.),

slopes, and small crevices. If the pilot determines that the

area chosen is safe to land in, the approach can be continued.

However, the decision to land or go around must be made

prior to decelerating below effective translational lift (ETL),

or before descending below the barriers surrounding the

confined area.

If a decision is made to complete the approach, termi nate

the landing to a hover in order to check the landing point

carefully before lowering the helicopter to the surface.

Under certain conditions, it may be desirable to continue

the approach to the surface. Once the heli copter is on the

ground, maintain operating revolutions per minute (rpm)

until the stability of the helicopter has been checked to be

sure it is in a secure and safe position.

Ground Reconnaissance

Prior to departing an unfamiliar location, make a detailed

analysis of the area. There are several factors to consider

during this evaluation. Besides determining the best departure

path and identifying all hazards in the area, select a route that

gets the helicopter from its present position to the take off

point while avoiding all hazards, especially to the tail rotor

and landing gear.

Some things to consider while formulating a takeoff plan

are the aircraft load, height of obstacles, the shape of the

area, direction of the wind, and surface conditions. Surface

conditions can consist of dust, sand and snow, as well as

mud and rocks. Dust landings and snow landings can lead

to a brownout or whiteout condition, which is the loss of

the horizon reference. Disorientation may occur, leading to

ground contact, often with fatal results. Taking off or landing

on uneven terrain, mud, or rocks can cause the tail rotor to

strike the surface or if the skids get caught can lead to dynamic

rollover. If the helicopter is heavily loaded, determine if there

is sufficient power to clear the obstacles. Sometimes it is better

to pick a path over shorter obstacles than to take off directly

into the wind. Also evaluate the shape of the area so that a path

can be chosen that will provide you the most room to maneuver

and abort the take off if necessary. Positioning the helicopter

at the most downwind portion of the confined area gives the

pilot the most distance to clear obstacles.

Wind analysis also helps determine the route of takeoff.

The prevailing wind can be altered by obstructions on

the departure path and can significantly affect aircraft

performance. There are several ways to check the wind

direction before taking off. One technique is to watch the tops

of the trees; another is to look for any smoke in the area. If

there is a body of water in the area, look to see which way the

water is rippling. If wind direction is still in question revert

to the last report that was received by either the Automatic

Terminal Information Service (ATIS) or airport tower.

Maximum Performance Takeoff

A maximum performance takeoff is used to climb at a steep

angle to clear barriers in the flightpath. It can be used when

taking off from small areas surrounded by high obstacles.

Allow for a vertical takeoff, although not preferred, if

obstruction clearance could be in doubt. Before attempting

a maximum performance takeoff, know thoroughly the

capabilities and limitations of the equipment. Also consider

the wind velocity, temperature, density alti tude, gross weight,

center of gravity (CG) location, and other factors affecting

pilot technique and the perform ance of the helicopter.

10-3

Figure 10-1. Maximum performance takeoff.

To accomplish this type of takeoff safely, there must be

enough power to hover out of ground effect (OGE) in order

to prevent the helicopter from sinking back to the surface

after becoming airborne. A hover power check can be used to

deter mine if there is sufficient power available to accomplish

this maneuver.

The angle of climb for a maximum performance takeoff

depends on existing conditions. The more critical the

conditions are, such as high-density altitudes, calm winds,

and high gross weights, the shallower the angle of climb is. In

light or no wind conditions, it might be necessary to operate

in the crosshatched or shaded areas of the height/velocity

diagram during the begin ning of this maneuver. Therefore,

be aware of the calculated risk when operating in these areas.

An engine failure at a low altitude and airspeed could place

the helicopter in a dangerous position, requiring a high degree

of skill in making a safe autorotative landing.

Technique

Before attempting a maximum performance takeoff,

reposition the helicopter to the most downwind area to allow a

longer takeoff climb, then bring the helicopter to a hover, and

determine the excess power available by noting the difference

between the power available and that required to hover.

Also, perform a balance and flight control check and note

the position of the cyclic. If the takeoff path allows, position

the helicopter into the wind and return the helicopter to the

surface. Normally, this maneuver is initiated from the surface.

After checking the area for obstacles and other aircraft, select

reference points along the takeoff path to maintain ground

track. Also consider alternate routes in case the maneuver is

not possible. [Figure 10-1]

Begin the takeoff by getting the helicopter light on the skids

(position 1). Pause and neutralize all aircraft movement.

Slowly increase the collective and position the cyclic

to lift off in a 40-knot attitude. This is approximately

the same attitude as when the helicopter is light on the

skids. Continue to increase the collec tive slowly until the

maximum power available is reached (takeoff power is

normally 10 percent above power required for hover). This

large collective movement requires a substantial increase

in pedal pressure to maintain heading (position 2). Use the

cyclic, as necessary, to control movement toward the desired

flightpath and, therefore, climb angle during the maneuver

(position 3). Maintain rotor rpm at its maxi mum, and do

not allow it to decrease since you would probably need to

lower the collective to regain it. Maintain these inputs until

the helicopter clears the obstacle, or until reaching 50 feet

for demonstration purposes (position 4). Then, establish a

normal climb attitude and power setting (position 5). As

in any maximum performance maneuver, the techniques

used affect the actual results. Smooth, coordinated inputs

coupled with precise control allow the helicopter to attain

its maximum performance.

An acceptable method when departing from an area that does

not allow for a takeoff with forward airspeed is to perform a

vertical takeoff. This technique allows the pilot to descend

vertically back into the confined area if the helicopter

does not have the performance to clear the surrounding

obstacles. During this maneuver, the helicopter must climb

vertically and not be allowed to accelerate forward until the

surrounding obstacles have been cleared. If not, a situation

may develop where the helicopter does not have sufficient

climb performance to avoid obstructions and may not have

power to descend back to the takeoff point. The vertical

takeoff might not be as efficient as the climbing profile but

is much easier to abort from a vertical position directly over

the landing point. The vertical takeoff, however, places the

helicopter in the avoid area of the height/velocity diagram

for a longer time. This maneuver requires hover OGE power

to accomplish.

Common Errors

1. Failure to consider performance data, including height-

velocity diagram.

2. Nose too low initially causing horizontal flight rather

than more vertical flight.

3. Failure to maintain maximum permissible rpm.

4. Abrupt control movements.

5. Failure to resume normal climb power and air speed

after clearing the obstacle.

Running/Rolling Takeoff

A running takeoff in helicopter with fixed landing gear,

such as skids, skis or floats, or a rolling takeoff in a

10-4

1 2 3

Figure 10-2. Running/rolling takeoff.

wheeled helicopter is sometimes used when conditions of

load and/or density altitude prevent a sus tained hover at

normal hovering height. For wheeled helicopters, a rolling

takeoff is sometimes used to minimize the downwash

created during a takeoff from a hover. Avoid a running/

rolling maneuver if there is not sufficient power to hover,

at least momentarily. If the helicopter cannot be hovered,

its performance is unpredictable. If the helicopter cannot

be raised off the surface at all, sufficient power might not

be available to accomplish the maneuver safely. If a pilot

cannot momentarily hover the helicopter, wait for conditions

to improve or off-load some of the weight.

To accomplish a safe running or rolling takeoff, the sur face

area must be of sufficient length and smoothness, and there

cannot be any barriers in the flightpath to interfere with a

shallow climb.

Technique

Refer to Figure 10-2. To begin the maneuver, first align the

helicopter to the takeoff path. Next, increase the throttle to

obtain takeoff rpm, and increase the collec tive smoothly

until the helicopter becomes light on the skids or landing

gear (position 1). If taking off from the water, ensure that

the floats are mostly out of the water. Then, move the cyclic

slightly forward of the neutral hovering position, and apply

additional collective to start the forward movement (position

2). To simulate a reduced power condition during practice,

use one to two inches less manifold pressure, or three to five

percent less torque than that required to hover. The landing

gear must stay aligned with the takeoff direction until the

helicopter leaves the surface to avoid dynamic rollover.

Maintain a straight ground track with lateral cyclic and

heading with antitorque pedals until a climb is established.

As effective translational lift is gained, the helicopter

becomes airborne in a fairly level attitude with little or no

pitching (position 3). Maintain an altitude to take advan tage

of ground effect, and allow the airspeed to increase toward

normal climb speed. Then, follow a climb profile that takes

the helicopter through the clear area of the height-velocity

diagram (position 4). During practice maneuvers, after having

climbed to an altitude of 50 feet, establish the normal climb

power setting and attitude.

NOTE: It should be remembered that if a running takeoff is

necessary for most modern helicopters, the helicopter is very

close to, or has exceeded the maximum operating weight for

the conditions (i.e., temperature and altitude).

The height/velocity parameters should be respected at all

times. The helicopter should be flown to a suitable altitude

to allow a safe acceleration in accordance with the height-

velocity diagram.

Common Errors

1. Failing to align heading and ground track to keep

surface friction to a minimum.

2. Attempting to become airborne before obtaining

effective translational lift.

3. Using too much forward cyclic during the surface run.

4. Lowering the nose too much after becoming air borne,

resulting in the helicopter settling back to the surface.

5. Failing to remain below the recommended altitude

until airspeed approaches normal climb speed.

Rapid Deceleration or Quick Stop

This maneuver is used to decelerate from forward flight to a

hover. It is often used to abort takeoffs, to stop if something

blocks the helicopter flightpath, or simply to terminate an air

taxi maneuver, as mentioned in the Aeronautical Information

Manual (AIM). A quick stop is usually practiced on a runway,

taxiway, or over a large grassy area away from other traffic

or obstacles.

Technique

The maneuver requires a high degree of coordination of

all controls. It is practiced at a height that permits a safe

clearance between the tail rotor and the surface throughout

the maneuver, especially at the point where the pitch attitude

is highest. The height at completion should be no higher

than the maximum safe hovering height prescribed by that

particular helicopter’s manufacturer. In selecting a height at

which to begin the maneuver, take into account the overall

length of the helicopter and its height/velocity diagram. Even

though the maneuver is called a rapid deceleration or quick

stop, it is performed slowly and smoothly with the primary

emphasis on coordination.

During training, always perform this maneuver into the wind

[Figure 10-3, position 1] . After leveling off at an altitude

FAA Helicopter Flying Handbook: Chapter 8 — Ground Procedures and Flight Preparations — Part 5

More from this manual