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Figure 5-29. Level-off at cruising speed.
Primary pitch
Supporting pitch and bank
Supporting bank
Primary bank
Supporting pitch
Primary power as
airspeed approaches
desired value
Figure 7-29. Level off at cruising speed.
Entry
The following method for entering descents is effective
with or without an attitude indicator. First, reduce airspeed
to a selected descent airspeed while maintaining straight-
and-level flight, then make a further reduction in power
(to a predetermined setting). As the power is adjusted,
simultaneously lower the nose to maintain constant airspeed,
and trim off control pressures.
During a constant airspeed descent, any deviation from the
desired airspeed calls for a pitch adjustment. For a constant
rate descent, the entry is the same, but the VSI is primary for
pitch control (after it stabilizes near the desired rate), and the
ASI is primary for power control. Pitch and power must be
closely coordinated when corrections are made, as they are
in climbs. [Figure 7-30]
Leveling Off
The level off from a descent must be started before reaching
the desired altitude. The amount of lead depends upon the
rate of descent and control technique. With too little lead,
the airplane tends to overshoot the selected altitude unless
technique is rapid. Assuming a 500 fpm rate of descent, lead
the altitude by 100–150 feet for a level off at an airspeed
higher than descending speed. At the lead point, add power to
the appropriate level flight cruise setting. [Figure 7-31] Since
the nose tends to rise as the airspeed increases, hold
forward elevator pressure to maintain the vertical speed at
the descending rate until approximately 50 feet above the
altitude, and then smoothly adjust the pitch attitude to the
level flight attitude for the airspeed selected.
To level off from a descent at descent airspeed, lead the
desired altitude by approximately 50 feet, simultaneously
adjusting the pitch attitude to level flight and adding power to
a setting that holds the airspeed constant. [Figure 7-32] Trim
off the control pressures and continue with the normal
straight-and-level flight cross-check.
Common Errors in Straight Climbs and Descents
Common errors result from the following faults:
1. Overcontrolling pitch on climb entry. Until the pitch
attitudes related to specific power settings used in
climbs and descents are known, larger than necessary
pitch adjustments are made. One of the most difficult
habits to acquire during instrument training is to
restrain the impulse to disturb a flight attitude until
the result is known. Overcome the inclination to
make a large control movement for a pitch change,
and learn to apply small control pressures smoothly,
cross-checking rapidly for the results of the change,
and continuing with the pressures as instruments show
the desired results. Small pitch changes can be easily
controlled, stopped, and corrected; large changes are
more difficult to control.
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Figure 5-31. Level-off airspeed higher than descent airspeed.
Supporting pitch and bank
Supporting bank
Primary bank
Primary pitch
Add power at
100'-150' lead
Figure 7-31. Level off airspeed higher than descent airspeed.
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Figure 5-30. Constant airspeed descent, airspeed high-reduce power..
Supporting pitch and bank
Supporting bank
Primary bank
Primary pitch
Primary power
Figure 7-30. Constant airspeed descent, airspeed high—reduce power.
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Figure 5-32. Level-off at descent airspeed.
Supporting pitch and bank
Supporting bank
Primary bank
Supporting pitch
Primary power
at 50' lead
Primary power
Figure 7-32. Level off at descent airspeed.
2. Failure to vary the rate of cross-check during
speed, power, or attitude changes or climb or
descent entries.
3. Failure to maintain a new pitch attitude. For example,
raising the nose to the correct climb attitude, and as
the airspeed decreases, either overcontrol and further
increase the pitch attitude or allow the nose to lower.
As control pressures change with airspeed changes,
cross-check must be increased and pressures readjusted.
4. Failure to trim off pressures. Unless the airplane is
trimmed, there is difficulty in determining whether
control pressure changes are induced by aerodynamic
changes or by the pilot’s own movements.
5. Failure to learn and use proper power settings.
6. Failure to cross-check both airspeed and vertical speed
before making pitch or power adjustments.
7. Improper pitch and power coordination on slow-speed
level offs due to slow cross-check of airspeed and
altimeter indications.
8. Failure to cross-check the VSI against the other
pitch control instruments, resulting in chasing the
vertical speed.
9. Failure to note the rate of climb or descent to determine
the lead for level offs, resulting in overshooting or
undershooting the desired altitude.
10. Ballooning (allowing the nose to pitch up) on level
offs from descents, resulting from failure to maintain
descending attitude with forward-elevator pressure as
power is increased to the level flight cruise setting.
11. Failure to recognize the approaching straight-and-level
flight indications as level off is completed. Maintain
an accelerated cross-check until positively established
in straight-and-level flight.
Turns
Standard Rate Turns
A standard rate turn is one in which the pilot will do a
complete 360° circle in 2 minutes or 3 degrees per second.
A standard rate turn, although always 3 degrees per second,
requires higher angles of bank as airspeed increases. To
enter a standard rate level turn, apply coordinated aileron
and rudder pressures in the desired direction of turn. Pilots
commonly roll into turns at a much too rapid rate. During
initial training in turns, base control pressures on the rate of
cross-check and interpretation. Maneuvering an airplane faster
than the capability to keep up with the changes in instrument
indications only creates the need to make corrections.
A rule of thumb to determine the approximate angle of bank
required for a standard rate turn is to use 15 percent of the
true airspeed. A simple way to determine this amount is to
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Figure 5-33. Standard-rate turn, constant airspeed.
Primary bank initially supporting pitch
Primary bank
Supporting pitch
Primary bank
as turn is
established
Primary power
Primary pitch
Figure 7-33. Standard rate turn, constant airspeed.
divide the airspeed by 10 and add one-half the result. For
example, at 100 knots, approximately 15° of bank is required
(100 ÷ 10 = 10 + 5 = 15); at 120 knots, approximately 18°
of bank is needed for a standard rate turn.
On the roll-in, use the attitude indicator to establish
the approximate angle of bank, and then check the turn
coordinator’s miniature aircraft for a standard rate turn
indication or the aircraft’s turn-and-bank indicator. Maintain
the bank for this rate of turn, using the turn coordinator’s
miniature aircraft as the primary bank reference and the
attitude indicator as the supporting bank instrument.
[Figure 7-33] Note the exact angle of bank shown on
the banking scale of the attitude indicator when the turn
coordinator indicates a standard rate turn.
During the roll-in, check the altimeter, VSI, and attitude
indicator for the necessary pitch adjustments as the vertical
lift component decreases with an increase in bank. If constant
airspeed is to be maintained, the ASI becomes primary for
power, and the throttle must be adjusted as drag increases. As
the bank is established, trim off the pressures applied during
pitch and power changes.
To recover to straight-and-level flight, apply coordinated
aileron and rudder pressures opposite to the direction of
the turn. Strive for the same rate of roll-out used to roll into
the turn; fewer problems are encountered in estimating the
lead necessary for roll-out on exact headings, especially on
partial panel maneuvers. Upon initiation of the turn recovery,
the attitude indicator becomes the primary bank instrument.
When the airplane is approximately level, the heading
indicator is the primary bank instrument as in straight-and-
level flight. Pitch, power, and trim adjustments are made as
changes in vertical lift component and airspeed occur. The
ball should be checked throughout the turn, especially if
control pressures are held rather than trimmed off.
Some airplanes are very stable during turns, requiring only
slight trim adjustments that permit hands-off flight while
the airplane remains in the established attitude. Other
airplanes require constant, rapid cross-check and control
during turns to correct overbanking tendencies. Due to the
interrelationship of pitch, bank, and airspeed deviations
during turns, cross-check must be fast in order to prevent
an accumulation of errors.
Turns to Predetermined Headings
As long as an airplane is in a coordinated bank, it continues
to turn. Thus, the roll-out to a desired heading must be started
before the heading is reached. The amount of lead varies with
the relationship between the rate of turn, angle of bank, and
rate of recovery. For small heading changes, use a bank angle
that does not exceed the number of degrees to be turned. Lead
the desired heading by one-half the number of degrees of
bank used. For example, if a 10° bank is used during a change
in heading, start the roll-out 5 degrees before reaching the
desired heading. For larger changes in heading, the amount
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Figure 5-34. Turn coordinator calibration.
Supporting pitch and bank
Supporting pitch
Primary power
Primary pitch
Primary bank
Figure 7-34. Turn coordinator calibration.
of lead varies since the angle of bank for a standard rate turn
varies with the true airspeed.
Practice with a lead of one-half the angle of bank until
the precise lead a given technique requires is determined.
If rates of roll-in and roll-out are consistent, the precise
amount of lead suitable to a particular roll-out technique
can be determined.
Timed Turns
A timed turn is a turn in which the clock and the turn
coordinator are used to change heading by a specific number
of degrees in a given time. For example, in a standard rate turn
(3 degrees per second), an airplane turns 45° in 15 seconds; in
a half standard rate turn, the airplane turns 45° in 30 seconds.
Prior to performing timed turns, the turn coordinator should
be calibrated to determine the accuracy of its indications.
[Figure 7-34] Establish a standard rate turn as indicated by
the turn coordinator, and as the sweep-second hand of the
clock passes a cardinal point (12, 3, 6, 9), check the heading
on the heading indicator. While holding the indicated rate
of turn constant, note the indicated heading changes at 10
second intervals. If the airplane turns more than or less than
30° in that interval, a respectively larger or smaller deflection
of the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator is necessary
to produce a standard rate turn. After calibrating the turn
coordinator during turns in each direction, note the corrected
deflections, if any, and apply them during all timed turns.
The same cross-check and control technique is used in making
a timed turn that is used to execute turns to predetermined
headings, except the clock is substituted for the heading
indicator. The miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator is
primary for bank control, the altimeter is primary for pitch
control, and the ASI is primary for power control. Start the
roll-in when the clock’s second hand passes a cardinal point,
hold the turn at the calibrated standard rate indication (or
half-standard rate for small heading changes), and begin the
roll-out when the computed number of seconds has elapsed.
If the rates of roll-in and roll-out are the same, the time taken
during entry and recovery does not need to be considered in
the time computation.
Practice timed turns with a full instrument panel and check
the heading indicator for the accuracy of turns. If the turns are
executed without the gyro heading indicator, use the magnetic
compass at the completion of the turn to check turn accuracy,
taking compass deviation errors into consideration.
Compass Turns
In most small airplanes, the magnetic compass is the only
direction-indicating instrument independent of other airplane
instruments and power sources. Because of its operating
characteristics, called compass errors, pilots are prone to
use it only as a reference for setting the heading indicator,
but knowledge of magnetic compass characteristics permits
full use of the instrument to turn the airplane to correct and
maintain headings.
W 24 21
Figure 5-35
Figure 7-35. North and south turn error.
Remember the following points when making turns to
magnetic compass headings or when using the magnetic
compass as a reference for setting the heading indicator:
1. If on a north heading and a turn is started to the east or
west, the compass indication lags or indicates a turn
in the opposite direction.
2. If on a south heading and a turn is started toward
the east or west, the compass indication precedes
the turn, indicating a greater amount of turn than is
actually occurring.
3. When on an east or west heading, the compass indicates
correctly when starting a turn in either direction.
4. If on an east or west heading, acceleration results in
a north turn indication; deceleration results in a south
turn indication.
5. When maintaining a north or south heading, no error
results from diving, climbing, or changing airspeed.
With an angle of bank between 15° and 18°, the amount of
lead or lag to be used when turning to northerly or southerly
headings varies with, and is approximately equal to, the
latitude of the locality over which the turn is being made.
When turning to a heading of north, the lead for roll-out must
include the number of degrees of change of latitude, plus the
lead normally used in recovery from turns. During a turn to
a south heading, maintain the turn until the compass passes
south the number of degrees of latitude, minus normal roll-
out lead. [Figure 7-35]
For example, when turning from an easterly direction to
north, where the latitude is 30°, start the roll-out when the
compass reads 37° (30° plus one-half the 15° angle of bank,
or whatever amount is appropriate for the rate of roll-out).
When turning from an easterly direction to south, start the
roll-out when the magnetic compass reads 203° (180° plus
30° minus one-half the angle of bank). When making similar
turns from a westerly direction, the appropriate points at
which to begin the roll-out would be 323° for a turn to north
and 157° for a turn to south.
When turning to a heading of east or west from a northerly
direction, start the roll-out approximately 10° to 12° before
the east or west indication is reached. When turning to an east
or west heading from a southerly direction, start the rollout
approximately 5 degrees before the east or west indication
is reached. When turning to other headings, the lead or lag
must be interpolated.
Abrupt changes in attitude or airspeed and the resulting erratic
movements of the compass card make accurate interpretations
of the instrument very difficult. Proficiency in compass turns
depends on knowledge of compass characteristics, smooth
control technique, and accurate bank-and-pitch control.
Steep Turns
For purposes of instrument flight training in conventional
airplanes, any turn greater than a standard rate is considered
steep. [Figure 7-36] The exact angle of bank at which a
normal turn becomes steep is unimportant. What is important
is learning to control the airplane with bank attitudes in
excess of those normally used on instruments. Practicing
steep turns will not only increase proficiency in the basic
instrument flying skills, but also enable smooth, quick, and
confident reactions to unexpected abnormal flight attitudes
under instrument flight conditions.
Pronounced changes occur in the effects of aerodynamic
forces on aircraft control at progressively greater bank
attitudes. Skill in cross-check, interpretation, and control is
increasingly necessary in proportion to the amount of these
changes, though the techniques for entering, maintaining, and
recovering from the turn are the same in principle for steep
turns as for shallower turns.
Enter a steep turn in the same way as a shallower turn,
but prepare to cross-check rapidly as the turn steepens.
Because of the greatly reduced vertical lift component, pitch
control is usually the most difficult aspect of this maneuver.
Unless immediately noted and corrected with a pitch
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Figure 5-36. Steep left turn.
Figure 7-36. Steep left turn.
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Figure 7-37. Diving spiral.
elevator pressure will maintain constant altitude. However,
overbanking to excessively steep angles without adjusting
pitch as the bank changes occur requires increasingly
stronger elevator pressure. The loss of vertical lift and
increase in wing loading finally reach a point at which
further application of back-elevator pressure tightens the
turn without raising the nose.
How does a pilot recognize overbanking and low pitch
attitude? What should a pilot do to correct them? If a rapid
downward movement of the altimeter needle or vertical speed
needle, together with an increase in airspeed, is observed
despite application of back elevator pressure, the airplane is in
a diving spiral. [Figure 7-37] Immediately shallow the bank
with smooth and coordinated aileron and rudder pressures,
hold or slightly relax elevator pressure, and increase the cross-
check of the attitude indicator, altimeter, and VSI. Reduce
power if the airspeed increase is rapid. When the vertical
speed trends upward, the altimeter needle moves slower as
the vertical lift increases. When the elevator is effective in
raising the nose, hold the bank attitude shown on the attitude
indicator and adjust elevator control pressures smoothly for
the nose-high attitude appropriate to the bank maintained.
If pitch control is consistently late on entries to steep turns,
rollout immediately to straight-and-level flight and analyze
possible errors. Practice shallower turns initially and learn the
attitude changes and control responses required, then increase
the banks as a quicker and more accurate cross-check and
control techniques are developed.
The power necessary to maintain constant airspeed increases
as the bank and drag increase. With practice, the power
increase, the loss of vertical lift results in rapid movement
of the altimeter, vertical speed, and airspeed needles. The
faster the rate of bank change, the more suddenly the lift
changes occur. If a cross-check is fast enough to note the
immediate need for pitch changes, smooth, steady back-
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Figure 5-38. Change of airspeed in turn.
Supporting pitch and bank
Supporting pitch
Primary pitch
Primary bank
Primary power as
airspeed approaches
desired value
Primary power
as throttle is set
Figure 7-38. Change of airspeed during turn.
settings appropriate to specific bank attitudes are learned, and
adjustments can be made without undue attention to airspeed
and power instruments. During training in steep turns, as in
any other maneuver, attend to the most important tasks first.
Keep the pitch attitude relatively constant, and more time
can be devoted to cross-check and instrument interpretation.
During recovery from steep turns to straight-and-level
flight, elevator and power control must be coordinated with
bank control in proportion to the changes in aerodynamic
forces. Back elevator pressures must be released and power
decreased. The common errors associated with steep turns are
the same as those discussed later in this section. Remember,
errors are more exaggerated, more difficult to correct, and
more difficult to analyze unless rates of entry and recovery
are consistent with the level of proficiency in the three basic
instrument flying skills.
Climbing and Descending Turns
To execute climbing and descending turns, combine the
technique used in straight climbs and descents with the various
turn techniques. The aerodynamic factors affecting lift and
power control must be considered in determining power
settings, and the rate of cross-check and interpretation must be
increased to enable control of bank as well as pitch changes.
Change of Airspeed During Turns
Changing airspeed during turns is an effective maneuver for
increasing proficiency in all three basic instrument skills.
Since the maneuver involves simultaneous changes in all
components of control, proper execution requires rapid
cross-check and interpretation as well as smooth control.
Proficiency in the maneuver also contributes to confidence in
the instruments during attitude and power changes involved
in more complex maneuvers. Pitch and power control
techniques are the same as those used during changes in
airspeed in straight-and-level flight.
The angle of bank necessary for a given rate of turn is
proportional to the true airspeed. Since the turns are executed
at a standard rate, the angle of bank must be varied in direct
proportion to the airspeed change in order to maintain a
constant rate of turn. During a reduction of airspeed, decrease
the angle of bank and increase the pitch attitude to maintain
altitude and a standard rate turn.
The altimeter and turn coordinator indications should remain
constant throughout the turn. The altimeter is primary for
pitch control and the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator
is primary for bank control. The manifold pressure gauge (or
tachometer) is primary for power control while the airspeed
is changing. As the airspeed approaches the new indication,
the ASI becomes primary for power control.
Two methods of changing airspeed in turns may be used. In the
first method, airspeed is changed after the turn is established.
[Figure 7-38] In the second method, the airspeed change is
initiated simultaneously with the turn entry. The first method
is easier, but regardless of the method used, the rate of cross-
check must be increased as power is reduced. As the airplane
decelerates, check the altimeter and VSI for necessary pitch
changes and the bank instruments for required bank changes.