Chapter 1
Departure Procedures
Introduction
Thousands of instrument flight rules (IFR) takeoffs and
departures occur daily in the National Airspace System
(NAS). In order to accommodate this volume of IFR traffic, air
traffic control (ATC) must rely on pilots to use charted airport
sketches and diagrams, as well as departure procedures
(DPs) that include both standard instrument departures
(SIDs) and obstacle departure procedures (ODPs). While
many charted (and uncharted) departures are based on
radar vectors, the bulk of IFR departures in the NAS require
pilots to navigate out of the terminal environment to the
en route phase.
IFR takeoffs and departures are fast-paced phases of
flight, and pilots often are overloaded with critical flight
information. While preparing for takeoff, pilots are busy
requesting and receiving clearances, preparing their aircraft
for departure, and taxiing to the active runway. During IFR
conditions, they are doing this with minimal visibility, and
they may be without constant radio communication if flying
out of a non-towered airport. Historically, takeoff minimums
for commercial operations have been successively reduced
through a combination of improved signage, runway
markings and lighting aids, and concentrated pilot
training and qualifications. Today at major terminals, some
commercial operators with appropriate equipment, pilot
qualifications, and approved Operations Specifications
(OpSpecs) may takeoff with visibility as low as 300 feet
runway visual range (RVR). One of the consequences of
takeoffs with reduced visibility is that pilots are challenged
in maintaining situational awareness during taxi operations.
Surface Movement Safety
One of the biggest safety concerns in aviation is the surface
movement accident. As a direct result, the FAA has rapidly
expanded the information available to pilots, including
the addition of taxiway and runway information in FAA
publications, particularly the IFR U.S. Terminal Procedures
Publication (TPP) booklets and the Chart Supplement (CS)
volumes. The FAA has also implemented new procedures
and created educational and awareness programs for
pilots, ATC, and ground operators. By focusing resources
to attack this problem head on, the FAA hopes to reduce
and eventually eliminate surface movement accidents.
Airport Sketches and Diagrams
Airport sketches and diagrams provide pilots of all levels
with graphical depictions of the airport layout. Aeronautical
Information Services, formerly known as Aeronautical
Products (AeroNav), provide an airport sketch on the lower
left or right portion of every instrument approach chart.
[Figure 1-1] This sketch depicts the runways, their length,
width and slope, the touchdown zone elevation, the lighting
system installed on the end of the runway, and taxiways.
Graphical depictions of NOTAMS are also available for
selected airports as well as for temporary flight restriction
(TFRs) areas on the defense internet NOTAM service (DINS)
website.
For select airports, typically those with heavy traffic or
complex runway layouts, Aeronautical Information Services
also prints an airport diagram. The diagram is located in
the IFR TPP booklet following the instrument approach
chart for a particular airport. It is a full page depiction of
the airport that includes the same features of the airport
sketch plus additional details, such as taxiway identifiers,
Figure 1-1. Airport diagram included on the Oshkosh, Wisconsin
VOR RWY 9 Approach Chart as depicted in the IFR TPP .
NOT FOR NAVIGATION
Runway numbers
Runway slope
Runway length and width
airport latitude and longitude, and building identification.
The airport diagrams are also available in the Airport/Facility
Directory section of the Chart Supplement (CS) and on the
Aeronautical Information Services' website, located at
www.aeronav.faa.gov. [Figure 1-2]
Chart Supplements (CS)
In recent years, the former Airport/Facility Directory (A/
FD) booklet was incorporated as a section in the Chart
Supplement (CS). [Figure 2-14] The Chart Supplement
(CS) is published by Aeronautical Information Services in
regional booklets and online at: [https://www.faa.gov/
air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav/digital_products/dafd/]
The online version is known as the digital Chart Supplement
(d-CS). The d-CS and the CS are identical and provide
textual and graphic information about all airports, both
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and IFR. The Airport/Facility
Directory (A/FD) section of the CS includes runway length
EC-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010
EC-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010
NOT FOR NAVIGATION
Longitude and latitude
Airport name and locationOn-airport buildings
Taxiway designations
Precise runway direction
Runway slope
Figure 1-2. Airport diagram of Oshkosh, Wisconsin as depicted in
the A/FD section of the CS.
and width, runway surface, load bearing capacity, runway
slope, runway declared distances, airport services, and
hazards, such as birds and reduced visibility. [Figure 1-3]
Sketches of airports also are being added to aid VFR pilots in
surface movement activities. In support of the FAA Runway
Incursion Program, full page airport diagrams and “Hot
Spot” locations are included in the A/FD section of the CS.
These charts are the same as those published in the IFR
TPP and are printed for airports with complex runway or
taxiway layouts.
Surface Movement Guidance Control System
(SMGCS)
The Surface Movement Guidance Control System
(SMGCS) was developed to facilitate the safe movement
of aircraft and vehicles at airports where scheduled
air carriers were conducting authorized operations.
Advisory Circular 120-57 was developed in 1992. In 2012,
FAA Order 8000.94, Procedures for Establishing Airport
Low-Visibility Operations and Approval of Low-Visibility
Operations/Surface Movement Guidance and Control
System Operations, was published to provide procedures
for establishing Airport Low-Visibility Operations (LVO)
and Surface Movement Guidance and Control Systems. It
established the necessary FAA headquarters and operating
services, roles, responsibilities, and activities for operations
at 14 CFR Part 139 airports using RVRs of less than 1,200
feet for each runway. The order applies to all users of
the system at all levels who are formally listed. The FAA
requires the commissioning of an “FAA approved LVO/
SMGCS Operation” for all new Category III ILS supported
runways. Since there are no regulatory takeoff minimums
for 14 CFR Part 91 operations, the information provided by
FAA AC 120-57 and FAA Order 8000.94 must be understood
so that the general aviation pilot can understand LVO and
SMGCS during day or night.
The SMGCS low visibility taxi plan includes the enhancement
of taxiway and runway signs, markings, and lighting,
as well as the creation of SMGCS visual aid diagrams.
[Figure 1-4] The plan also clearly identifies taxi routes
and their supporting facilities and equipment. Airport
enhancements that are part of the SMGCS program include,
but are not limited to:
• Controllable Stop bars lights—these consist of a row
of red, unidirectional, in-pavement lights that can be
controlled by ATC. They provide interactions with
and aircraft that prevent runway incursions during
takeoff operations. These are required for operations
at less than 500 ft RVR.
• Non-Controllable Stop bars lights—these are red,
unidirectinoal lights place at intersections where a
restriction to movement is required. They must be
in continuous operation at less than 500 ft RVR.
• Taxiway centerline lead-on lights—guide ground
traffic under low visibility conditions and at night.
These lights consist of alternating green/yellow in-
pavement lights.
• Runway guard lights—either elevated or in-
pavement, may be installed at all taxiways that
provide access to an active runway. They consist
of alternately flashing yellow lights. These lights
are used to denote both the presence of an active
runway and identify the location of a runway holding
position marking.
• Geographic position markings—ATC verifies the
position of aircraft and vehicles using geographic
position markings. The markings can be used either
as hold points or for position reporting. These
checkpoints or “pink spots” are outlined with a black
and white circle and designated with a number or a
number and a letter.
Figure 1-3. Excerpts from the Chart Supplement (Airport Facility Directory section) of Naples Muni, Naples, Florida.
• Clearance bar lights—three yellow in-pavement
clearance bar lights used to denote holding
positions for aircraft and vehicles. When used for
hold points, they are co-located with geographic
position markings.
Both flight and ground crews, Part 121 and 135 operators, are
required to comply with SMGCS plans when implemented
at their specific airport. All airport tenants are responsible
for disseminating information to their employees and
conducting training in low visibility operating procedures.
Anyone operating in conjunction with the SMGCS plan
must have a copy of the low visibility taxi route chart for
their given airport as these charts outline the taxi routes
and other detailed information concerning low visibility
operations. These charts are available from private sources
outside of the FAA. Government sources for SMGCS
charts may be available in the future. Part 91 operators
are expected to comply with the guidelines listed in AC
120-57, and should expect “Follow Me” service (when
available) when low visibility operations are in use. Any
SMGCS outage that would adversely affect operations at
the airport is issued as a Notice to Airmen (NOTAM).
Advanced Surface Movement Guidance Control
System (A-SMGCS)
With the increasing demand for airports to accommodate
higher levels of aircraft movements, it is becoming more
difficult for the existing infrastructure to safely handle
greater capacities of traffic in all weather conditions. As
a result, the FAA is implementing runway safety systems,
such as Airport Surface Detection Equipment-Model X
(ASDE-X) and Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and
Control System (A-SMGCS) at various airports. The data that
these systems use comes from surface movement radar
and aircraft transponders. The combination of these data
sources allows the systems to determine the position and
identification of aircraft on the airport movement area and
decreases the potential of collisions on airport runways
and taxiways.
Additional information concerning airport lighting,
markings, and signs can be found in the Aeronautical
Information Manual (AIM) and the Pilot’s Handbook of
A A
Runway holding position marking and lights for land and hold short operations (LAHSO)
Painted taxiway direction sign
Painted taxiway location sign
Taxiway centerline marking
Not under ATC controlUnder ATC
control
Taxiway edge marking (do not cross)
Centerline/lead-on lights
Stop bar at instrument landing system hold position
Broken taxiway edge markings may be crossed
Painted
holding
position
sign
Low
visibility
hold
point
Vehicle lanes
Reporting points
In-pavement runway guard lights
Figure 1-4. Key airport lighting and markings.
Aeronautical Knowledge, appendix 1, as well as on the FAA’s
website at http://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety/.
Airport Signs, Lighting, and Markings
Flight crews use airport lighting, markings, and signs to
help maintain situational awareness. These visual aids
provide information concerning the aircraft’s location on
the airport, the taxiway in use, and the runway entrance
being used. Overlooking this information can lead to
ground accidents that are entirely preventable. If you
encounter unfamiliar markings or lighting, contact ATC
for clarification and, if necessary, request progressive taxi
instructions. Pilots are encouraged to notify the appropriate
authorities of erroneous, misleading, or decaying signs or
lighting that would contribute to the failure of safe ground
operations.
Runway Incursions
On any given day, the NAS may handle almost 200,000
takeoffs and landings. Due to the complex nature of the
airport environment and the intricacies of the network of
people that make it operate efficiently, the FAA is constantly
looking to maintain the high standard of safety that exists
at airports today. Runway safety is one of its top priorities.
The FAA defines a runway incursion as: “Any occurrence
at an aerodrome involving the incorrect presence of an
aircraft, vehicle, or person on the protected area of a surface
designated for the landing and takeoff of aircraft. ”
The four categories of runway incursions are listed below:
• Category A—a serious incident in which a collision
was narrowly avoided.
• Category B—an incident in which separation
decreases and there is a significant potential for
Figure 1-5. FAA recommendations for reducing runway incursions.
The FAA recommends that you:
• Receive and understand all NOTAMs, particularly
those concerning airport construction and lighting.
• Read back, in full, all clearances involving
holding short, line up and wait, and crossing runways
to ensure proper understanding.
• Abide by the sterile cockpit rule.
• Develop operational procedures that minimize
distractions during taxiing.
• Ask ATC for directions if you are lost or unsure of
your position on the airport.
• Adhere to takeoff and runway crossing clearances in
a timely manner.
• Position your aircraft so landing traffic can see you.
• Monitor radio communications to maintain a
situational awareness of other aircraft.
• Remain on frequency until instructed to change.
• Make sure you know the reduced runway distances
and whether or not you can comply before accepting
a land and hold short clearance or clearance for
shortened runway.
• Report confusing airport diagrams to the proper
authorities.
• Use exterior taxi and landing lights when practical.
The sterile cockpit rule refers to a concept outlined in 14 CFR
Part 121, § 121.542 and 135.100 that requires flight
crews to refrain from engaging in activities that could distract
them from the performance of their duties during critical phases
of flight.
NOTE:
collision that may result in a time critical corrective/
evasive response to avoid a collision.
• Category C—an incident characterized by ample
time and/or distance to avoid a collision.
• Category D—an incident that meets the definition
of runway incursion, such as incorrect presence of a
single vehicle/person/aircraft on the protected area
of a surface designated for the landing and takeoff of
aircraft but with no immediate safety consequences.
Figure 1-5 highlights several steps that reduce the chances
of being involved in a runway incursion.
In addition to the SMGCS program, the FAA has implemented
additional programs to reduce runway incursions and other
surface movement issues. They identified runway hotspots,
designed standardized taxi routes, and instituted the
Runway Safety Program.
Runway Hotspots
ICAO defines runway hotspots as a location on an
aerodrome movement area with a history or potential risk
of collision or runway incursion and where heightened
attention by pilots and drivers is necessary. Hotspots
alert pilots to complex or potentially confusing taxiway
geometry that could make surface navigation challenging.
Whatever the reason, pilots need to be aware that
these hazardous intersections exist, and they should
be increasingly vigilant when approaching and taxiing
through these intersections. These hotspots are depicted
on some airport charts as circled areas. [Figure 1-6] The FAA
Office of Runway Safety has links to the FAA regions that
maintain a complete list of airports with runway hotspots
at http://www.faa.gov/airports/runway_safety.
Standardized Taxi Routes
Standard taxi routes improve ground management at high-
density airports, namely those that have airline service. At
these airports, typical taxiway traffic patterns used to move
aircraft between gate and runway are laid out and coded.
The ATC specialist (ATCS) can reduce radio communication
time and eliminate taxi instruction misinterpretation by
simply clearing the pilot to taxi via a specific, named route.
An example of this would be Los Angeles International
Airport (KLAX), where North Route is used to transition
to Runway 24L. [Figure 1-7] These routes are issued by
ground control, and if unable to comply, pilots must
advise ground control on initial contact. If for any reason
the pilot becomes uncertain as to the correct taxi route, a
request should be made for progressive taxi instructions.
These step-by-step routing directions are also issued if the
controller deems it necessary due to traffic, closed taxiways,
airport construction, etc. It is the pilot’s responsibility to
know if a particular airport has preplanned taxi routes, to
be familiar with them, and to have the taxi descriptions in
their possession. Specific information about airports that
use coded taxiway routes is included in the Notices to
Airmen Publication (NTAP).
NOT FOR NAVIGATION
SAMPLE NOT FOR ACTUAL USE
At Long Beach/Daugherty Field Airport, the following areas have been
designated as hot spots, posing a special challenge to pilots.
HOT6
Landing Runway 30
Be aware that this runway crosses every other available runway
at the airport. When exiting the runway, pilots should make sure
they are turning with a “lead-off” taxiline onto a taxiway and not
onto another active runway.
HOT1
Runway 25R and Taxiway D
Aircraft exiting runway 30 at taxiway A turn
left on taxiway D, anticipate reaching their
destination, and fail to hold short of runway
25R.
HOT2
Runway 12 and Taxiway B
Aircraft northbound on taxiway B for departure
on runway 16R at taxiway intersection D miss
the right turn onto taxiway D and enter
runways 12, 7L, and 25R.
HOT3
Runway 25L/7R at Taxiway B
Aircraft southbound on taxiway B anticipate
reaching their destination parking ramp and
fail to hold short of runway 25L/7R.
HOT4
Runway 16R/34L at Taxiway F
Aircraft taxiing to runway 16R from the
southwest ramp miss the left turn onto
taxiway B, continue eastbound onto taxiway
F, and enter runway 16R/34L.
HOT5
Runway 25L at Taxiway D
After completing a runup on inactive runway
34R, aircraft fail to hold short of runway 25L.
Figure 1-6. Example of runway hot spots located at Long Beach/Daugherty Field Airport (KLGB).
SW-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010
Standardized Taxi Routes for Los Angeles
International Airport (KLAX)
The following Standardized Taxi routes
may be issued to all taxiing aircraft.
North Route
Taxi via Charlie (C) towards taxiway Sierra (S) taxi northbound on taxiway Sierra (S),
and at Check-point-1 contact Ground Control on frequency 121.65, hold short of
taxiway Delta (D). When advised by the north Ground Control, the North Route
continues on taxiway Echo (E) to Runway 24L or the gate, whichever applies.
South Route
If the aircraft is west of taxiway Romeo (R), taxi eastbound on taxiway Echo (E) and
turn right on taxiway Romeo (R), if the aircraft is east of taxiway Romeo (R), taxi
westbound on taxiway Echo (E) and turn left on taxiway Romeo (R). And at
Check-point-2, contact Ground Control on frequency 121.75, hold short of taxiway
Charlie (C).
West Route
Taxi via taxiway Charlie (C) west-bound, hold short of taxiway Alfa Alfa (AA), contact
Ground Control on frequency 121.65 when number one approaching Taxiway AA.
Bridge Route
Taxi via taxiway Echo (E) then south on taxiway Alfa Alfa (AA), and at Check-point-3
contact Ground Control on frequency 121.75, hold short of taxiway Charlie (C).
(AJV-W2 4/23/2010)
North Route
SW-3, 29 JUL 2010 to 26 AUG 2010
Figure 1-7. Los Angeles International Airport diagram, North Route, and standardized taxi route.
Taxi and Movement Operations Change
As of June 30, 2010, controllers are required to issue explicit
instructions to cross or hold short of each runway that
intersects a taxi route. Following is a summary of these
procedural changes:
• “Taxi to” is no longer used when issuing taxi
instructions to an assigned takeoff runway.
• Instructions to cross a runway are issued one at a
time. Instructions to cross multiple runways are not
issued. An aircraft or vehicle must have crossed the
previous runway before another runway crossing
is issued. This applies to any runway, including
inactive or closed runways.
• Never cross a runway hold marking without explicit
ATC instructions. If in doubt, ask!
Reminder: You may not enter a runway unless you have
been:
1. Instructed to cross or taxi onto that specific runway;
2. Cleared to take off from that runway; or
3. Instructed to line up and wait on that specific runway.
For more information on the change, refer to FAA Order
JO 7110.65, Air Traffic Control, which can be found at www.
faa.gov.
Weather and the Departure Environment
Takeoff Minimums
While mechanical failure is potentially hazardous during
any phase of flight, a failure during takeoff under
instrument conditions is extremely critical. In the event of
an emergency, a decision must be made to either return to
the departure airport or fly directly to a takeoff alternate. If
the departure weather were below the landing minimums
for the departure airport, the flight would be unable to
return for landing, leaving few options and little time to
reach a takeoff alternate.
In the early years of air transportation, landing minimums
for commercial operators were usually lower than takeoff
minimums. Therefore, it was possible that minimums
allowed pilots to land at an airport but not depart from that
airport. Additionally, all takeoff minimums once included
ceiling, as well as visibility requirements. Today, takeoff
minimums are typically lower than published landing
minimums, and ceiling requirements are only included if
it is necessary to see and avoid obstacles in the departure
area.
The FAA establishes takeoff minimums for every airport
that has published Standard Instrument Approaches.
These minimums are used by commercially operated
aircraft, namely Part 121 and Part 135 operators. At airports
where minimums are not established, these same carriers
are required to use FAA-designated standard minimums:
1 statute mile (SM) visibility for single- and twin-engine
aircraft, and 1⁄2 SM for helicopters and aircraft with more
than two engines.
Aircraft operating under 14 CFR Part 91 are not required to
comply with established takeoff minimums. Legally, a zero/
zero departure may be made, but it is never advisable. If
commercial pilots who fly passengers on a daily basis must
comply with takeoff minimums, then good judgment and
common sense would tell all instrument pilots to follow
the established minimums as well.
Aeronautical Information Services charts list takeoff
minimums only for the runways at airports that have other
than standard minimums. These takeoff minimums are
listed by airport in alphabetical order in the front of the TPP
booklet. If an airport has non-standard takeoff minimums,
a T (referred to by some as either the “triangle T” or “trouble
T”) is placed in the notes sections of the instrument
procedure chart. In the front of the TPP booklet, takeoff
minimums are listed before the obstacle departure
procedure. Some departure procedures allow a departure
with standard minimums provided specific aircraft
performance requirements are met. [Figure 1-8]
Takeoff Minimums for Commercial Operators
While Part 121 and Part 135 operators are the primary users
of takeoff minimums, they may be able to use alternative
takeoff minimums based on their individual OpSpecs.
Through these OpSpecs, operators are authorized to depart
with lower-than-standard minimums provided they have
the necessary equipment and crew training.
Operations Specifications (OpSpecs)
Within the air transportation industry, there is a need to
establish and administer safety standards to accommodate
many variables. These variables include a wide range
of aircraft, varied operator capabilities, the various
situations requiring different types of air transportation,
and the continual, rapid changes in aviation technology.
It is impractical to address these variables through the
promulgation of safety regulations for each and every
type of air transport situation and the varying degrees of
operator capabilities. Also, it is impractical to address the