Figure 11-27. Cruise and range performance.
Notes Conditions
ALT
2,500
5,000
7,500
10,000
GAL/
Hour
9.7
8.6
7.8
7.2
6.7
6.3
9.0
8.1
7.4
6.9
6.5
6.0
8.4
7.7
7.1
6.7
6.2
7.6
7.3
6.9
6.4
6.0
Endr.
hours
3.9
4.4
4.9
5.3
5.7
6.1
4.2
4.7
5.1
5.5
5.9
6.3
4.5
4.9
5.3
5.7
6.1
5.0
5.2
5.5
5.9
6.3
Range
miles
525
570
600
620
630
625
565
600
625
635
635
630
600
625
645
645
640
640
650
655
650
635
Endr.
hours
4.9
5.6
6.2
6.7
7.2
7.7
5.3
5.9
6.4
6.9
7.4
7.9
5.7
6.2
6.7
7.2
7.7
6.3
6.5
7.0
7.5
8.0
Range
miles
660
720
760
780
795
790
710
760
790
805
805
795
755
790
810
820
810
810
820
830
825
800
%
BHP
86
79
72
65
58
52
82
75
68
61
55
49
78
71
64
58
52
70
67
61
55
49
TAS
MPH
134
129
123
117
111
103
134
128
122
116
108
100
133
127
121
113
105
129
125
118
110
100
38 gal
(no reserve)
48 gal
(no reserve)RPM
2,700
2,600
2,500
2,400
2,300
2,200
2,700
2,600
2,500
2,400
2,300
2,200
2,700
2,600
2,500
2,400
2,300
2,650
2,600
2,500
2,400
2,300
Gross weight—2,300 lb.
Standard conditions
Zero wind
Lean mixture
Maximum cruise is normally limited to 75% power.
two sets of numbers from one another, but given the fact that
the numbers read zero at sea level, it is known that the time
to climb from sea level to 8,000 feet is 10 minutes. It is also
known that 21 pounds of fuel is used and 20 NM is covered
during the climb. However, the temperature is 22 °C, which is
7° above the standard temperature of 15 °C. The notes section
of this chart indicate that the findings must be increased by ten
percent for each 7° above standard. Multiply the findings by
ten percent or .10 (10 × .10 = 1, 1 + 10 = 11 minutes). After
accounting for the additional ten percent, the findings should
read 11 minutes, 23.1 pounds of fuel, and 22 NM. Notice that
the fuel is reported in pounds of fuel, not gallons. Aviation
fuel weighs six pounds per gallon, so 23.1 pounds of fuel is
equal to 3.85 gallons of fuel (23.1 ÷ 6 = 3.85).
The next example is a cruise and range performance chart.
This type of table is designed to give TAS, fuel consumption,
endurance in hours, and range in miles at specific cruise
configurations. Use Figure 11-27 to determine the cruise and
range performance under the given conditions.
Sample Problem 6
Pressure Altitude...............................................5,000 feet
RPM..................................................................2,400 rpm
Fuel Carrying Capacity..................38 gallons, no reserve
Find 5,000 feet pressure altitude in the first column on the
left side of the table. Next, find the correct rpm of 2,400
in the second column. Follow that line straight across and
read the TAS of 116 mph and a fuel burn rate of 6.9 gallons
per hour. As per the example, the aircraft is equipped with
a fuel carrying capacity of 38 gallons. Under this column,
read that the endurance in hours is 5.5 hours and the range
in miles is 635 miles.
Cruise power setting tables are useful when planning cross-
country flights. The table gives the correct cruise power
settings, as well as the fuel flow and airspeed performance
numbers at that altitude and airspeed.
Sample Problem 7
Pressure Altitude at Cruise................................6,000 feet
OAT..................................................36 °F above standard
Refer to Figure 11-28 for this sample problem. First, locate
the pressure altitude of 6,000 feet on the far left side of the
table. Follow that line across to the far right side of the table
under the 20 °C (or 36 °F) column. At 6,000 feet, the rpm
setting of 2,450 will maintain 65 percent continuous power
at 21.0 "Hg with a fuel flow rate of 11.5 gallons per hour and
airspeed of 161 knots.
Another type of cruise chart is a best power mixture range
graph. This graph gives the best range based on power
setting and altitude. Using Figure 11-29, find the range at
65 percent power with and without a reserve based on the
provided conditions.
Sample Problem 8
OAT....................................................................Standard
Pressure Altitude...............................................5,000 feet
First, move up the left side of the graph to 5,000 feet and
standard temperature. Follow the line straight across the
graph until it intersects the 65 percent line under both the
reserve and no reserve categories. Draw a line straight down
from both intersections to the bottom of the graph. At 65
percent power with a reserve, the range is approximately
522 miles. At 65 percent power with no reserve, the range
should be 581 miles.
The last cruise chart referenced is a cruise performance graph.
This graph is designed to tell the TAS performance of the
airplane depending on the altitude, temperature, and power
setting. Using Figure 11-30, find the TAS performance based
on the given information.
Figure 11-29. Best power mixture range.
Range (nautical miles)
(Includes distance to climb and descend)
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
S.L.
-13°
-9°
-5°
-1°
3°
7°
11°
15°
450 500 550 600 500 550 600 650
Pressure ALT (1,000 feet)
Standard Temperature °C
Associated conditions
Mixture Leaned per section 4
Weight 2,300 lb.
Wings No
Fuel 48 gal usable
Wheel Fairings installed
Cruise Mid cruise
Power 75%
Power 65%
Power 55%
Power 75%
Power 65%
Power 55%
Notes
Range may be reduced
by up to 7% if wheel
fairings are not installed
Notes
Add 0.6 NM for each
degree Celsius above
standard temperature
and subtract 1 NM for
each degree Celsius
below standard
temperature.
45 minutes reserve at 55%
power best economy mixture
No reserve
Figure 11-28. Cruise power setting.
CRUISE POWER SETTING
65% MAXIMUM CONTINUOUS POWER (OR FULL THROTTLE)
2,800 POUNDS
Press
ALT
27
19
12
5
–2
–8
–15
–22
–29
–3
–7
–11
–15
–19
–22
–26
–30
–34
°F °C PSI GPH kts MPHRPM "HG
IOAT TASEngine
speed
Man.
press
Fuel
flow per
engine
S.L.
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
20.7
20.4
20.1
19.8
19.5
19.2
18.8
17.4
16.1
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.4
5.8
5.3
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.3
10.5
9.7
147
149
152
155
157
160
162
159
156
169
171
175
178
181
184
186
183
180
°F °C PSI GPH kts MPHRPM "HG
IOAT TASEngine
speed
Man.
press
Fuel
flow per
engine
°F °C PSI GPH kts MPHRPM "HG
IOAT TASEngine
speed
Man.
press
Fuel
flow per
engine
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
2,450
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.1
5.6
5.1
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.5
5.9
5.4
4.9
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
10.9
10.1
9.4
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.5
11.4
10.6
9.8
9.1
63
55
48
41
36
28
21
14
7
17
13
9
5
2
–2
–6
–10
–14
21.2
21.0
20.7
20.4
20.2
19.9
18.8
17.4
16.1
150
153
156
158
161
163
163
160
156
173
176
180
182
185
188
188
184
180
99
91
84
79
72
64
57
50
43
37
33
29
26
22
18
14
10
6
21.8
21.5
21.3
21.0
20.8
20.3
18.8
17.4
16.1
153
156
159
161
164
166
163
160
155
176
180
183
185
189
191
188
184
178
ISA –20° (–36 °F) Standard day (ISA) ISA +20° (+36 °F)
1. Full throttle manifold pressure settings are approximate.
2. Shaded area represents operation with full throttle.
Notes
Sample Problem 9
OAT.........................................................................16 °C
Pressure Altitude...............................................6,000 feet
Power Setting................................65 percent, best power
Wheel Fairings..............................................Not installed
Begin by finding the correct OAT on the bottom left side of
the graph. Move up that line until it intersects the pressure
altitude of 6,000 feet. Draw a line straight across to the
65 percent, best power line. This is the solid line, that
represents best economy. Draw a line straight down from
this intersection to the bottom of the graph. The TAS at 65
percent best power is 140 knots. However, it is necessary
to subtract 8 knots from the speed since there are no wheel
fairings. This note is listed under the title and conditions.
The TAS is 132 knots.
Crosswind and Headwind Component Chart
Every aircraft is tested according to Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) regulations prior to certification. The
aircraft is tested by a pilot with average piloting skills in
90° crosswinds with a velocity up to 0.2 V S0 or two-tenths
of the aircraft’s stalling speed with power off, gear down,
and flaps down. This means that if the stalling speed of the
aircraft is 45 knots, it must be capable of landing in a 9-knot,
90° crosswind. The maximum demonstrated crosswind
component is published in the AFM/POH. The crosswind and
headwind component chart allows for figuring the headwind
and crosswind component for any given wind direction and
velocity.
Sample Problem 10
Runway..........................................................................17
Wind........................................................140° at 25 knots
Refer to Figure 11-31 to solve this problem. First, determine
how many degrees difference there is between the runway
and the wind direction. It is known that runway 17 means
a direction of 170°; from that subtract the wind direction
of 140°. This gives a 30° angular difference or wind angle.
Next, locate the 30° mark and draw a line from there until
it intersects the correct wind velocity of 25 knots. From
Figure 10-31. Crosswind component chart.
Crosswind component
Headwind component
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0
Wind velocity
10° 0°
20°
30°
40°
50°
60°
70°
80°
90°
Figure 11-30. Cruise performance graph.
20,000
18,000
16,000
14,000
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000 Sea level
–40° –30° –20° –10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 100 120 140 160 180 200
Outside air temperature (°C) True airspeed (knots)
Pressure ALT (feet)
Associated conditions
Weight 3,600 lb. gross weight
Flaps Up
Best power Mixture leaned to 100°
rich of peak EGT
Best economy Mixture leaned to peak EGT
1,650° Max allowable EGT
Wheel Fairings installed
Power 55%
Power 65%
Power 75%
Notes
Subtract 8 knots if wheel
fairings are not installed.
Best power
Best economy
Standard tempe
rature
2,575 rpm
at 36 IN. M
.P. – 2-blade pro
p
2,700 rpm
at 36 IN. M
.P. – 3-blade prop
there, draw a line straight down and a line straight across.
The headwind component is 22 knots and the crosswind
component is 13 knots. This information is important when
taking off and landing so that, first of all, the appropriate
runway can be picked if more than one exists at a particular
airport, but also so that the aircraft is not pushed beyond its
tested limits.
Landing Charts
Landing performance is affected by variables similar to those
affecting takeoff performance. It is necessary to compensate
for differences in density altitude, weight of the airplane, and
headwinds. Like takeoff performance charts, landing distance
information is available as normal landing information,
as well as landing distance over a 50 foot obstacle. As
usual, read the associated conditions and notes in order to
ascertain the basis of the chart information. Remember, when
calculating landing distance that the landing weight is not the
same as the takeoff weight. The weight must be recalculated
to compensate for the fuel that was used during the flight.
Sample Problem 11
Pressure Altitude...............................................1,250 feet
Temperature.........................................................Standard
Refer to Figure 10-32. This example makes use of a landing
distance table. Notice that the altitude of 1,250 feet is not
on this table. It is, therefore, necessary to interpolate to find
the correct landing distance. The pressure altitude of 1,250
is halfway between sea level and 2,500 feet. First, find the
column for sea level and the column for 2,500 feet. Take the
total distance of 1,075 for sea level and the total distance of
1,135 for 2,500 and add them together. Divide the total by
two to obtain the distance for 1,250 feet. The distance is 1,105
feet total landing distance to clear a 50 foot obstacle. Repeat
this process to obtain the ground roll distance for the pressure
altitude. The ground roll should be 457.5 feet.
Sample Problem 12
OAT.......................................................................... 57 °F
Pressure Altitude.............................................. 4,000 feet
Landing Weight...........................................2,400 pounds
Headwind.............................................................. 6 knots
Obstacle Height..................................................... 50 feet
Using the given conditions and Figure 11-33, determine the
landing distance for the aircraft. This graph is an example of
Figure 11-33. Landing distance graph.
C –40° –30° –20° –10° 0° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50° 2,800 2,600 2,400 2,200 0 10 20 30 0 50
Outside air temperature Weight Wind component Obstacle
(pounds) (knots) height (feet)
F –40° –20° 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 120°
3,500
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
Guide lines notapplicable for Intermediate
Tailwind
Headwind
Reference line
Reference line
Reference line
Pressure altitude (feet)
Obstacle heights
Weight
(pounds) kts MPH
Speed
at 50 feet
2,950
2,800
2,600
2,400
2,200
70
68
65
63
60
80
78
75
72
69
Associated conditions
Power Retarded to maintain
900 feet/on final approach
Flaps Down
Landing gear Down
Runway Paved, level, dry surface
Approach speed IAS as tabulated
Braking Maximum
10,0008,000
6,000
2,0004,000
S.L. ISA
Figure 11-32. Landing distance table.
Note
LANDING DISTANCE
Conditions
Gross
weight
lb Ground roll Total to clear
50 ft OBS
Approach speed
IAS, MPH
At sea level & 59 °F
Flaps lowered to 40°
Power off
Hard surface runway
Zero wind
1,600 60 445 1,075 470 1,135 495 1,195 520 1,255
Ground roll Total to clear
50 ft OBS
At 2,500 ft & 50 °F
Ground roll Total to clear
50 ft OBS
At 5,000 ft & 41 °F
Ground roll Total to clear
50 ft OBS
At 7,500 ft & 32 °F
1. Decrease the distances shown by 10% for each 4 knots of headwind.
2. Increase the distance by 10% for each 60 °F temperature increase above standard.
3. For operation on a dry, grass runway, increase distances (both “ground roll” and “total to clear 50 ft obstacle”) by 20% of the “total to clear 50 ft obstacle” figure.
a combined landing distance graph and allows compensation
for temperature, weight, headwinds, tailwinds, and varying
obstacle height. Begin by finding the correct OAT on the
scale on the left side of the chart. Move up in a straight
line to the correct pressure altitude of 4,000 feet. From this
intersection, move straight across to the first dark reference
line. Follow the lines in the same diagonal fashion until the
correct landing weight is reached. At 2,400 pounds, continue
in a straight line across to the second dark reference line.
Once again, draw a line in a diagonal manner to the correct
wind component and then straight across to the third dark
reference line. From this point, draw a line in two separate
directions: one straight across to figure the ground roll and
one in a diagonal manner to the correct obstacle height. This
should be 975 feet for the total ground roll and 1,500 feet for
the total distance over a 50 foot obstacle.
Stall Speed Performance Charts
Stall speed performance charts are designed to give an
understanding of the speed at which the aircraft stalls in
a given configuration. This type of chart typically takes
into account the angle of bank, the position of the gear and
flaps, and the throttle position. Use Figure 11-34 and the
accompanying conditions to find the speed at which the
airplane stalls.
Sample Problem 13
Power........................................................................ OFF
Flaps....................................................................... Down
Gear........................................................................ Down
Angle of Bank............................................................. 45°
First, locate the correct flap and gear configuration. The
bottom half of the chart should be used since the gear and
Figure 11-34. Stall speed table.
Gross weight
2,750 lb
MPH 62 67 74 88
knots 54 58 64 76
MPH 75 81 89 106
knots 65 70 77 92
MPH 54 58 64 76
knots 47 50 56 66
MPH 66 71 78 93
knots 57 62 68 81
Angle of bank
PowerPower
Gear and flaps up
Gear and flaps down
Level 30° 45° 60°
On
Off
On
Off
flaps are down. Next, choose the row corresponding to a
power-off situation. Now, find the correct angle of bank
column, which is 45°. The stall speed is 78 mph, and the
stall speed in knots would be 68 knots.
Performance charts provide valuable information to the pilot.
By using these charts, a pilot can predict the performance of
the aircraft under most flying conditions, providing a better
plan for every flight. The Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)
requires that a pilot be familiar with all information available
prior to any flight. Pilots should use the information to their
advantage as it can only contribute to safety in flight.
Transport Category Aircraft Performance
Transport category aircraft are certificated under Title 14
of the CFR (14 CFR) part 25. For additional information
concerning transport category airplanes, consult the Airplane
Flying Handbook, FAA-H-8083-3 (as revised).
Transport category helicopters are certificated under 14
CFR part 29.
Air Carrier Obstacle Clearance
Requirements
For information on air carrier obstacle clearance
requirements consult the Instrument Procedures Handbook,
FAA-H-8083-16 (as revised).
Chapter Summary
Performance characteristics and capabilities vary greatly
among aircraft. As transport aircraft become more capable
and more complex, most operators find themselves having
to rely increasingly on computerized flight mission planning
systems. These systems may be on board or used during
the planning phase of the flight. Moreover, aircraft weight,
atmospheric conditions, and external environmental factors
can significantly affect aircraft performance. It is essential
that a pilot become intimately familiar with the mission
planning programs, performance characteristics, and
capabilities of the aircraft being flown, as well as all of the
onboard computerized systems in today’s complex aircraft.
The primary source of this information is the AFM/POH.