should be merely a step-up of one already learned so
that orderly, consistent progress can be made.
Maneuvering by Reference to
Ground Objects
Ground track or ground reference maneuvers are
performed at a relatively low altitude while apply -
ing wind drift correction as needed to follow a pre -
determined track or path over the ground. They are
designed to develop the ability to control the powered
parachute and to recognize and correct for the effect
of wind while dividing attention among other matters.
This requires planning ahead of the powered para -
chute, maintaining orientation in relation to ground
objects, flying appropriate headings to follow a de -
sired ground track, and being cognizant of other air
traffic in the immediate vicinity.
Pilots should perform clearing turns prior to begin -
ning a maneuver. The essential idea of the clearing
turn is to be certain that the next maneuver is not go -
ing to proceed into another aircraft’s flightpath. Some
pilot training programs have hard and fast rules, such
as requiring two 90° turns in opposite directions be -
fore executing any training maneuver. Other types of
clearing procedures may be developed by individual
flight instructors. Whatever the preferred method, a
clearing procedure should be used. Execute the ap -
propriate clearing procedure before all turns and be -
fore executing any training maneuver. Proper clearing
procedures, combined with proper visual scanning
techniques, are the most effective strategy for colli-
sion avoidance.
Ground reference maneuvers should be flown so as
not to descend below 200 feet above the ground. The
actual altitude will depend on a number of factors.
You should plan and fly the maneuver so as not to
descend below an altitude of 200 feet above ground
level (AGL); however you must also plan and fly so as
not to come closer than 500 feet to any person, vessel,
vehicle or structure.
Purpose and Scope
Ground reference maneuvers and their related factors
are used in developing a high degree of pilot skill.
Although most of these maneuvers are not performed
as such in normal everyday flying, the elements and
principles involved in each are applicable to perfor -
mance of the customary pilot operations. They aid the
pilot in analyzing the effect of wind and other forces
acting on the powered parachute, and in developing a
fine control touch and the division of attention neces-
sary for accurate and safe powered parachute maneu-
vering.
All of the early part of the pilot’s training has been
conducted for the purpose of developing technique,
knowledge of maneuvers, feel, and the handling of the
powered parachute in general. This training will have
required that most of the pilot’s attention be given to
the actual handling of the powered parachute, and the
results of control pressures on the action of the pow -
ered parachute.
If permitted to continue beyond the appropriate train-
ing stage, however, the student pilot’s concentration
of attention will become a fixed habit, one that will
seriously detract from the student’s ease and safety as
a pilot, and will be very difficult to eliminate. There -
fore it is necessary, as soon as the pilot shows profi -
ciency in the fundamental maneuvers, that the pilot be
introduced to maneuvers requiring outside attention
on a practical application of these maneuvers and the
knowledge gained.
During ground reference maneuvers, it is important
that basic flying technique previously learned be
maintained. The flight instructor should not allow
any relaxation of the student’s previous standard of
technique simply because a new factor is added. This
requirement should be maintained throughout the
student’s progress from maneuver to maneuver. Each
new maneuver should embody some advance and in-
clude the principles of the preceding one in order that
continuity is maintained. Each new factor introduced
• The radius of the turn and the path of the
powered parachute over the ground should be
easily noted and changes planned and effected
as circumstances require.
• Drift should be easily discernable, but not tax
the student too much in making corrections.
• The altitude should be low enough to render
any gain or loss apparent to the student, but
in no case closer than 500 feet to the highest
obstruction or lower then 200 feet above the
ground.
During these maneuvers, both the instructor and the
student should be alert for available forced-landing
fields. The area chosen should be away from com -
munities, livestock, or groups of people to prevent
possible annoyance or hazards to others. Due to the
altitudes at which these maneuvers are performed,
there is little time available to search for a suitable
field for landing in the event the need arises.
Drift and Ground Track Control
Whenever any object is free from the ground, it is
affected by the medium with which it is surrounded.
This means that a free object will continue to move in
its current direction and speed unless acted upon by
another force. For example, if a powerboat is cross -
ing a river and the river is still, the boat could head
directly to a point on the opposite shore and travel on
a straight course to that point without drifting. How -
ever, if the river were flowing swiftly, the water cur -
rent would have to be considered. That is, as the boat
progresses forward with its own power, it must also
move upstream at the same rate the river is moving
it downstream. This is accomplished by angling the
boat upstream sufficiently to counteract the down -
stream flow. If this is done, the boat will follow the
desired track across the river from the departure point
directly to the intended destination point. Should the
boat not be headed sufficiently upstream, it would
drift with the current and run aground at some point
downstream on the opposite bank. [Figure 9-1]
As soon as a powered parachute becomes airborne,
it is free of ground friction. Its path is then affected
by the air mass in which it is flying; therefore, the
powered parachute (like the boat) will not always
track along the ground in the exact direction that it is
headed. When flying with the longitudinal axis of the
powered parachute aligned with a road, the powered
parachute may get closer to or farther from the road
without any turn having been made. This would indi-
cate the air mass is moving sideward in relation to the
powered parachute. Since the powered parachute is
flying within this moving body of air (wind), it moves
or drifts with the air in the same direction and speed,
just like the boat moved with the river current. [See
Figure 9-1]
Figure 9-1. Wind drift.
When flying straight and level and following a select-
ed ground track, the preferred method of correcting
for wind drift is to head the powered parachute suf -
ficiently into the wind to cause the powered parachute
to move forward into the wind at the same rate the
wind is moving it sideways. Depending on the wind
velocity, this may require a large wind correction an-
gle or one of only a few degrees. When the drift has
been neutralized, the powered parachute will follow
the desired ground track.
To understand the need for drift correction during
flight, consider a flight with a wind velocity of 30
knots from the left and 90° to the direction the pow -
ered parachute is headed. After 1 hour, the body of air
in which the powered parachute is flying will have
moved 30 NM to the right. Since the powered para -
chute is moving with this body of air, it too will have
drifted 30 NM to the right. In relation to the air, the
powered parachute moved forward, but in relation to
the ground, it moved forward as well as 30 NM to the
right.
There are times when the pilot needs to correct for
drift while in a turn. [Figure 9-2] Throughout the turn
the wind will be acting on the powered parachute from
constantly changing angles. The relative wind angle
and speed govern the time it takes for the powered
parachute to progress through any part of a turn. This
is due to the constantly changing groundspeed. When
the powered parachute is headed into the wind, the
groundspeed is decreased; when headed downwind,
the groundspeed is increased. Through the crosswind
portion of a turn, the powered parachute must be
turned sufficiently into the wind to counteract drift.
To follow a desired circular ground track, the wind
correction angle must be varied in a timely manner
because of the varying groundspeed as the turn pro -
gresses. The faster the groundspeed, the faster the
wind correction angle must be established; the slow -
er the groundspeed, the slower the wind correction
angle must be established. You will see then that the
PPC should have the steepest bank and fastest rate of
turn on the downwind portion of the turn and have
the shallowest bank and slowest rate of turn on the
upwind portion.
The principles and techniques of varying the angle
of bank to change the rate of turn and wind correc -
tion angle for controlling wind drift during a turn are
the same for all ground track maneuvers involving
changes in direction of flight.
When there is no wind, it should be simple to fly along
a ground track with an arc of exactly 180° and a con-
stant radius because the flightpath and ground track
would be identical. This can be demonstrated by ap -
proaching a road at a 90° angle and, when directly
over the road, rolling into a medium-banked turn, then
maintaining the same angle of bank throughout the
180° of turn. [Figure 9-2]
To complete the turn, the rollout should be started at a
point where the canopy will become level as the pow-
ered parachute again reaches the road at a 90° angle
and will be directly over the road just as the turn is
completed. This would be possible only if there were
absolutely no wind and if the angle of bank and the
rate of turn remained constant throughout the entire
maneuver.
If the turn were made with a constant angle of bank
and a wind blowing directly across the road, it would
result in a constant radius turn through the air. How -
ever, the wind effects would cause the ground track
to be distorted from a constant radius turn or semicir-
cular path. The greater the wind velocity, the greater
would be the difference between the desired ground
track and the flightpath. To counteract this drift, the
Figure 9-2. Effect of wind during a turn.
flightpath can be controlled by the pilot in such a man-
ner as to neutralize the effect of the wind, and cause
the ground track to be a constant radius semicircle.
The effects of wind during turns can be demonstrated
after selecting a road, railroad, or other ground refer-
ence that forms a straight line parallel to the wind. Fly
into the wind directly over and along the line and then
make a turn with a constant medium angle of bank
for 360° of turn. [Figure 9-3] The powered parachute
will return to a point directly over the line but slightly
downwind from the starting point, the amount de -
pending on the wind velocity and the time required to
complete the turn. The path over the ground will be an
elongated circle, although in reference to the air, it is
a perfect circle. Straight flight during the upwind seg-
ment after completion of the turn is necessary to bring
the powered parachute back to the starting position.
A similar 360° turn may be started at a specific point
over the reference line, with the powered parachute
headed directly downwind. In this demonstration, the
effect of wind during the constant banked turn will
drift the powered parachute to a point where the line
is re-intercepted, but the 360° turn will be completed
at a point downwind from the starting point.
Another reference line which lies directly crosswind
may be selected and the same procedure repeated,
showing that if wind drift is not corrected the pow -
ered parachute will, at the completion of the 360°
turn, be headed in the original direction but will have
drifted away from the line a distance dependent on the
amount of wind.
From these demonstrations, you will see where and
why it is necessary to increase or decrease the angle
of bank and the rate of turn to achieve a desired track
over the ground. The principles and techniques in -
volved can be practiced and evaluated by the perfor -
mance of the ground track maneuvers discussed in
this chapter.
Rectangular Course
Normally, the rectangular course is the first ground
reference maneuver the pilot is introduced to. [Figure 9-4]
The rectangular course is a training maneuver in
which the ground track of the powered parachute is
equidistant from all sides of a selected rectangular
area on the ground. The maneuver simulates the con-
ditions encountered in an airport traffic pattern. While
performing the maneuver, the altitude should be held
constant.
The maneuver assists the student pilot in perfecting:
• Practical application of the turn.
• The division of attention between the flightpath,
ground objects, and the handling of the powered
parachute.
• The timing of the start of a turn so that the turn
will be fully established at a definite point over
the ground.
• The timing of the recovery from a turn so that a
definite ground track will be maintained.
• The establishing of a ground track and the
determination of the appropriate “crab” angle.
Like those of other ground track maneuvers, one of
the objectives is to develop division of attention be -
tween the flightpath and ground references, while
controlling the powered parachute and watching for
other aircraft in the vicinity. Another objective is to
develop recognition of drift toward or away from a
line parallel to the intended ground track. This will be
helpful in recognizing drift toward or from an airport
runway (landing area) during the various legs of the
airport traffic pattern.
For this maneuver, a square or rectangular field, or an
area bounded on four sides by section lines or roads,
should be selected well away from other air traffic.
The powered parachute should be flown parallel to
and at a uniform distance from the field boundaries,
not necessarily directly above the boundaries. For best
results, the flightpath should be positioned outside the
field boundaries just far enough that they may be eas-
ily observed from either pilot seat by looking out the
side of the powered parachute. If an attempt is made
to fly directly above the edges of the field, the pilot
will have no usable reference points to start and com-
plete the turns. The closer the track of the powered
parachute is to the field boundaries, the steeper the
Figure 9-3. Effect of wind during turns.
gresses, the bank angle is reduced gradually because
the tailwind component is diminishing, resulting in
a decreasing groundspeed. During and after the turn
onto this leg (the equivalent of the base leg in a traffic
pattern), the wind will tend to drift the powered para-
chute away from the field boundary. To compensate
for the drift, the amount of turn will be more than
90°.
The rollout from this turn must be such that as the
wing becomes level, the powered parachute is turned
slightly toward the field and into the wind to correct
for drift. The powered parachute should again be
the same distance from the field boundary and at the
same altitude, as on other legs. The base leg should be
continued until the upwind leg boundary is being ap-
proached. Once more the pilot should anticipate drift
and turning radius. Since drift correction was held on
the base leg, it is necessary to turn less than 90° to
align the powered parachute parallel to the upwind leg
boundary. This turn should be started with a medium
bank angle with a gradual reduction to a shallow bank
bank necessary at the turning points. Also, the pilot
should be able to see the edges of the selected field
while seated in a normal position and looking out the
side of the powered parachute during either a left-
hand or right-hand course. The distance of the ground
track from the edges of the field should be the same
regardless of whether the course is flown to the left or
right. All turns should be started when the powered
parachute is abeam the corner of the field boundaries
headed downwind where ground reference maneuvers
are typically started. These should be the determining
factors in establishing the distance from the boundar-
ies for performing the maneuver.
Although the rectangular course may be entered from
any direction, this discussion assumes entry on a
downwind.
On the downwind leg, the wind is a tailwind and re -
sults in an increased groundspeed. Consequently, the
turn onto the next leg is entered with a fairly fast rate
of turn and a higher (medium) bank. As the turn pro -
Figure 9-4. Rectangular course.
as the turn progresses. The rollout should be timed
to assure paralleling the boundary of the field as the
canopy becomes level.
While the powered parachute is on the upwind leg, the
next field boundary should be observed as it is being
approached, to plan the turn onto the crosswind leg.
Since the wind is a headwind on this leg, it is reducing
the powered parachute’s groundspeed and during the
turn onto the crosswind leg will try to drift the pow -
ered parachute toward the field. For this reason, the
roll-in to the turn must be slow and the bank relative-
ly shallow to counteract this effect. As the turn pro -
gresses, the headwind component decreases, allowing
the groundspeed to increase. Consequently, the bank
angle and rate of turn are increased gradually to as -
sure that upon completion of the turn the crosswind
ground track will continue the same distance from the
edge of the field. Completion of the turn with the wing
level should be accomplished at a point aligned with
the upwind corner of the field.
Simultaneously, as the wing is rolled level, the proper
drift correction is established with the powered para -
chute turned into the wind. This requires that the turn
be less than a 90° change in heading. If the turn has
been made properly, the powered parachute should
be the same distance from the field boundary and
at the same altitude, as on other legs. While on the
crosswind leg, the wind correction angle should be
adjusted as necessary to maintain a uniform distance
from the field boundary.
As the next field boundary is being approached, the
pilot should plan the turn onto the downwind leg.
Since a wind correction angle is being held into the
wind and away from the field while on the crosswind
leg, this next turn will require a turn of more than 90°.
Since the crosswind will become a tailwind, caus -
ing the groundspeed to increase during this turn, the
bank initially should be medium and progressively
increased as the turn proceeds. To complete the turn,
the rollout must be timed so that the wing becomes
level at a point aligned with the crosswind corner of
the field just as the longitudinal axis of the powered
parachute again becomes parallel to the field bound -
ary. The distance from the field boundary should be
the same as from the other sides of the field.
Usually, drift should not be encountered on the up -
wind or the downwind leg, but it may be difficult to
find a situation where the wind is blowing exactly
parallel to the field boundaries. This would make it
necessary to use a slight wind correction angle on all
the legs. It is important to anticipate the turns to cor -
rect for groundspeed, drift, and turning radius. When
the wind is behind the powered parachute, the turn
must be faster and steeper; when it is ahead of the
powered parachute, the turn must be slower and shal-
lower. These same techniques apply while flying in
airport traffic patterns.
Common errors in the performance of rectangular
courses are:
• Failure to adequately clear the area.
• Failure to establish proper altitude prior to
entry. (Typically, entering the maneuver while
descending.)
• Failure to establish appropriate wind correction
angle resulting in drift.
• Gaining or losing altitude.
• Abrupt control usage.
• Inability to adequately divide attention between
powered parachute control, maintaining ground
track, and maintaining altitude.
• Improper timing in beginning and recovering
from turns.
• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft.
S-Turns Across a Road
An S-turn across a road is a practice maneuver in
which the powered parachute’s ground track de -
scribes semicircles of equal radii on each side of a
selected straight line on the ground. [Figure 9-5] The
straight line may be a road, fence, railroad, or section
line that lies perpendicular to the wind, and should
be of sufficient length for making a series of turns. A
constant altitude should be maintained throughout the
maneuver; do not go lower than 200 feet.
S-turns across a road present one of the most elemen-
tary problems in the practical application of the turn
and in the correction for wind drift in turns. The appli-
cation of this maneuver is considerably less advanced
in some respects than the rectangular course. How -
ever it is taught after the student has been introduced
to the rectangular course in order that he or she may
have a knowledge of the correction for wind drift in
straight flight along a reference line, before attempt -
ing to correct for drift by applying a turn.
The objectives of S-turns across a road are to develop
the ability to compensate for drift during turns, orient
the flightpath with ground references, follow an as -
signed ground track, arrive at specified points on as -
signed headings, and divide the pilot’s attention. The
maneuver consists of crossing the road at a 90° angle
and immediately beginning a series of 180° turns of
uniform radius in opposite directions, re-crossing the
road at a 90° angle just as each 180° turn is completed.
To accomplish a constant radius ground track requires
a changing rate of turn and angle of bank to establish
the wind correction angle. Both will increase or de -
crease as groundspeed increases or decreases.
The bank must be steepest when beginning the turn on
the downwind side of the road and must be shallowed
gradually as the turn progresses from a downwind
heading to an upwind heading. On the upwind side,
the turn should be started with a relatively shallow
bank and then gradually steepened as the powered
parachute turns from an upwind heading to a down -
wind heading. In this maneuver, the powered para -
chute should be rolled from one bank directly into the
opposite just as the reference line on the ground is
crossed.
Before starting the maneuver, a straight ground ref -
erence line or road that lies 90° to the direction of
the wind should be selected, then the area should be
checked to ensure that no obstructions or other air -
craft are in the immediate vicinity. The road should be
approached from the upwind side, at the selected alti-
tude on a downwind heading. When directly over the
road, start the first turn immediately. With the pow -
ered parachute headed downwind, the groundspeed is
greatest and the rate of departure from the road will
be rapid; so the roll into the bank must be fairly rapid
to attain the proper wind correction angle. This pre -
vents the powered parachute from flying too far from
the road and from establishing a ground track of ex -
cessive radius. During the latter portion of the first
90° of turn when the powered parachute’s heading is
changing from a downwind heading to a crosswind
heading, the groundspeed becomes less and the rate of
departure from the road decreases. The wind correc -
tion angle will be at the maximum when the powered
parachute is headed directly crosswind.
After turning 90°, the powered parachute’s head -
ing becomes more and more an upwind heading,
the groundspeed will decrease, and the rate of clo -
sure with the road will become slower. If a constant
steeper bank were maintained, the powered parachute
would turn too quickly for the slower rate of closure,
and would be headed perpendicular to the road pre -
maturely. Because of the decreasing groundspeed and
rate of closure while approaching the upwind head -
ing, it will be necessary to gradually shallow the bank
during the remaining 90° of the semicircle, so that the
Figure 9-5. S-turns.
wind correction angle is removed completely and the
wing becomes level as the 180° turn is completed at
the moment the road is reached.
At the instant the road is being crossed again, a turn
in the opposite direction should be started. Since the
powered parachute is still flying into the headwind,
the groundspeed is relatively slow. Therefore, the turn
will have to be started with a shallow bank so as to
avoid an excessive rate of turn that would establish
the maximum wind correction angle too soon. The
degree of bank should be that which is necessary to
attain the proper wind correction angle so the ground
track describes an arc the same size as the one estab -
lished on the downwind side.
Since the powered parachute is turning from an up -
wind to a downwind heading, the groundspeed will
increase and after turning 90°, the rate of closure
with the road will increase rapidly. Consequently, the
angle of bank and rate of turn must be progressively
increased so that the powered parachute will have
turned 180° at the time it reaches the road. Again, the
rollout must be timed so the powered parachute is in
straight-and-level flight directly over and perpendicu-
lar to the road.
Throughout the maneuver a constant altitude should
be maintained, and the bank should be changing con-
stantly to affect a true semicircular ground track.
Often there is a tendency to increase the bank too
rapidly during the initial part of the turn on the up -
wind side, which will prevent the completion of the
180° turn before re-crossing the road. This is apparent
when the turn is not completed in time for the pow -
ered parachute to cross the road at a perpendicular
angle. To avoid this error, the pilot must visualize the
desired half circle ground track, and increase the bank
during the early part of this turn. During the latter part
of the turn, when approaching the road, the pilot must
judge the closure rate properly and increase the bank
accordingly, so as to cross the road perpendicular to it
just as the rollout is completed.
Common errors in the performance of S-turns across
a road are:
• Failure to adequately clear the area.
• Gaining or losing altitude.
• Inability to visualize the half circle ground
track.
• Poor timing in beginning and recovering from
turns.
• Faulty correction for drift.
• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft.
Turns Around a Point
As a training maneuver turns around a point is a logi-
cal extension of the principles involved in the per -
formance of S-turns across a road. Its purposes as a
training maneuver are:
• To further perfect turning technique.
• To perfect the ability to subconsciously control
the powered parachute while dividing attention
between the flightpath and ground references.
• To teach the student that the radius of a turn is a
distance which is affected by the degree of bank
used when turning with relation to a definite
object.
• To develop a keen perception of altitude.
• To perfect the ability to correct for wind drift
while in turns.
In turns around a point, the powered parachute is
flown in a complete circle of uniform radii or distance
from a prominent ground reference point while main-
taining a constant altitude; do not go lower than 200
feet.
The factors and principles of drift correction that are
involved in S-turns are also applicable in this maneu-
ver. As in other ground track maneuvers, a constant
radius around a point will, if any wind exists, require
a constantly changing angle of bank and wind correc-
tion angles. The closer the powered parachute is to a
direct downwind heading where the groundspeed is
greatest, the steeper the bank and the faster the rate
of turn required to establish the proper wind correc -
tion angle. The more nearly it is to a direct upwind
heading where the groundspeed is least, the shallower
the bank and the slower the rate of turn required to
establish the proper wind correction angle. It follows,
then, that throughout the maneuver the bank and rate
of turn must be gradually varied in proportion to the
groundspeed.
The point selected for turns around a point should
be prominent, easily distinguished by the pilot,
and yet small enough to present precise reference.
[Figure 9-6] Isolated trees, crossroads, or other simi -
lar small landmarks are usually suitable.
To enter turns around a point, the powered parachute
should be flown on a downwind heading to one side
of the selected point at a distance equal to the desired
radius of turn.
When any significant wind exists, it will be necessary
to roll into the initial bank at a rapid rate so that the
steepest bank is attained abeam of the point when the