Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 37
Chapter 6:
Crew Resource Management
For information on Crew Resource Management (CRM), refer to Chapter 10, “Aeronautical Decision-
Making and Judgment,” of this study guide.
6. Crew Resource Management
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Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 39
Chapter 7:
Radio Communication Procedures
Introduction
Radio communications are an important aspect for the safe operation of aircraft in the NAS. It is
through radio communications that pilots give and receive information before, during and at the
conclusion of a flight. This information aids in the flow of aircraft in highly complex airspace areas as
well as in less populated areas. Pilots can also send and receive important safety of flight issues such as
unexpected weather conditions, and inflight emergencies. Although small UA pilots are not expected
to communicate over radio frequencies, it is important for the UA pilot to understand “aviation
language” and the different conversations they will encounter if the UA pilot is using a radio to aid
them in situational awareness when operating in the NAS. Although much of the information provided
here is geared toward manned aircraft pilots, the UA pilot needs to understand the unique way
information is exchanged in the NAS.
Understanding Proper Radio Procedures
Understanding proper radio phraseology and procedures
contribute to a pilot’s ability to operate safely and
efficiently in the airspace system. A review of the
Pilot/Controller Glossary contained in the AIM assists a
pilot in understanding standard radio terminology. The
AIM also contains many examples of radio
communications.
ICAO has adopted a phonetic alphabet that should be used
in radio communications. When communicating with ATC,
pilots should use this alphabet to identify their aircraft.
[Figure 7-1]
Traffic Advisory Practices at Airports without Operating
Control Towers
Airport Operations without Operating Control Tower
There is no substitute for alertness while in the vicinity
of an airport. It is essential that pilots be alert and look
for other traffic a when operating at an airport without
an operating control tower. This is of particular
importance since other aircraft may not have
communication capability or, in some cases, pilots may
not communicate their presence or intentions when
operating into or out of such airports. To achieve the
greatest degree of safety, it is essential that all radio -
equipped aircraft transmit/receive on a common
frequency and small UA pilots monitor other aircraft
identified for the purpose of airport advisories.
7. Radio Communication Procedures
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 40
An airport may have a full or part -time tower or flight
service station (FSS) located o n the airport, a full or
part-time universal communications ( UNICOM) station or no aeronautical station at all. There are
three ways for pilots to communicate their intention and obtain airport/traffic information when
operating at an airport that does not have an operating tower—by communicating with an FSS, a
UNICOM operator, or by making a self-announce broadcast.
Many airports are now providing completely automated weather, radio check capability and airport
advisory information on an automated UNICOM system. These systems offer a variety of features,
typically selectable by microphone clicks, on the UNICOM frequency. Availability of the automated
UNICOM will be published in the Airport/Facility Directory and approach charts.
Understanding Communication on a Common Frequency
The key to communications at an airport without an operating control tower is selection of the
correct common frequency. The acronym CTAF, which stands for Common Traffic Advisory
Frequency, is synonymous with this program. A CTAF is a frequency designated for the purpose of
carrying out airport advisory practices while operating to or from an airport without an operating
control tower. The CTAF may be a UNICOM, MULTICOM, FSS, or tower frequency and is identified in
appropriate aeronautical publications.
Communication/Broadcast Procedures
A MULTICOM frequency of 122.9 will be used at an airport that is non-towered and does not have a
FSS or UNICOM.
Recommended Traffic Advisory Practices
Although a remote pilot-in-command is not required to communicate with manned aircraft when in
the vicinity of a non-towered airport, safety in the National Airspace System requires that remote
pilots are familiar with traffic patterns, radio procedures, and radio phraseology.
When a remote pilot plans to operate close to a non-towered airport, the first step in radio
procedures is to identify the appropriate frequencies. Most non-towered airports will have a
UNICOM frequency, which is usually 122.8; however, you should always check the Cart Supplements
U.S. or sectional chart for the correct frequency. This frequency can vary when there are a large
number of non-towered airports in the area. For non-towered airports that do not have a UNICOM
or any other frequency listed, the MULTICOM frequency of 122.9 will be used. These frequencies
can be found on a sectional chart by the airport or in the Chart Supplements publication from the
FAA.
When a manned aircraft is inbound to a non-towered airport, the standard operating practice is for
the pilot to “broadcast in the blind” when 10 miles from the airport. This initial radio call will also
include the position the aircraft is in relation to north, south, east or west from the airport. For
example:
Town and Country traffic, Cessna 123 Bravo Foxtrot is 10 miles south inbound for landing,
Town and Country traffic.
Figure 7-1. Phonetic Alphabet.
7. Radio Communication Procedures
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 41
When a manned aircraft is broadcasting at a non-towed airport, the aircraft should use the name of
the airport of intended landing at the beginning of the broadcast, and again at the end of the
broadcast. The reason for stating the name twice is to allow others who are on the frequency to
confirm where the aircraft is going. The next broadcast that the manned aircraft should make is:
Town and Country traffic, Cessna 123 Bravo Foxtrot, is entering the pattern, mid-field left
down-wind for runway 18, Town and Country traffic.
The aircraft is now entering the traffic pattern. In this example, the aircraft is making a standard 45
degree entry to the downwind leg of the pattern for runway 18. Or, the aircraft could land straight-
in without entering the typical rectangular traffic pattern. Usually aircraft that are executing an
instrument approach will use this method. Examples of a radio broadcast from aircraft that are
using this technique are:
For an aircraft that is executing an instrument approach:
Town and Country traffic, Cessna 123 Bravo Foxtrot, is one mile north of the airport, GPS
runway 18, full stop landing, Town and Country traffic.
As the aircraft flies the traffic pattern for a landing, the following radio broadcasts should be made:
Town and Country traffic, Cessna 123 Bravo Foxtrot, left base, runway 18, Town and Country
traffic.
Town and Country traffic, Cessna 123 Bravo Foxtrot, final, runway 18, Town and Country
traffic.
After the aircraft has landed and is clear of the runway, the following broadcast should be made:
Town and Country traffic, Cessna 123 Bravo Foxtrot, is clear of runway 18, taxing to park,
Town and Country traffic.
When an aircraft is departing a non-towered airport, the same procedures apply. For example,
when the aircraft is ready for takeoff, the aircraft should make the following broadcast:
Town and Country traffic, Cessna 123 Bravo Foxtrot, departing runway 18, Town and Country
traffic.
For safety reasons, a remote pilot must always scan the area where they are operating a small UA.
This is especially important around an airport. While it is good operating procedures for manned
aircraft to make radio broadcasts in the vicinity of a non-towered airport, by regulation, it is not
mandatory. For this reason, a remote pilot must always look for other aircraft in the area, and use a
radio for an extra layer of situational awareness.
Aircraft Call Signs
When operating in the vicinity of any airport, either towered or non-towered, it is important for a
remote pilot to understand radio communications of manned aircraft in the area. Although 14 CFR
part 107 only requires the remote pilot to receive authorization to operate in certain airport areas, it
can be a good operating practice to have a radio that will allow the remote pilot to monitor the
appropriate frequencies in the area. The remote pilot should refrain from transmitting over any
active aviation frequency unless there is an emergency situation.
7. Radio Communication Procedures
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 42
Aviation has unique communication procedures that will be foreign to a remote pilot who has not
been exposed to “aviation language” previously. One of those is aircraft call signs. All aircraft that
are registered in the United States will have a unique registration number, or “N” number. For
example, N123AB, which would be pronounced in aviation terms by use of the phonetic alphabet as,
“November One-Two-Three-Alpha-Bravo.” In most cases, “November” will be replaced with either
the aircraft manufacturer’s name (make) and in some cases, the type of aircraft (model). Usually,
when the aircraft is a light general aviation (GA) aircraft, the manufacturer’s name will be used. In
this case, if N123AB is a Cessna 172, the call sign would be “Cessna, One-Two-Three-Alpha-Bravo.” If
the aircraft is a heavier GA aircraft, such as a turbo-prop, or turbo-jet, the aircraft’s model will be
used in the call sign. If N123AB is a Cessna Citation, the call sign would be stated as, “Citation, One-
Two-Three-Alpha-Bravo.” Typically, airliners will use the name of their companies and their flight
number in their call signs. For example, Southwest Airlines flight 711, would be said as, “Southwest-
Seven-One-One.” There are a few airlines such as British Airways who will not use the company
name in their call sign. For example, British Airways uses “Speedbird.”
To close, a remote pilot is not expected to communicate with other aircraft in the vicinity of an
airport, and should not do so unless there is an emergency situation. However, in the interest of
safety in the NAS, it is important that a remote pilot understands the aviation language and the
types of aircraft that can be operating in the same area as a small UA.
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 43
Chapter 8:
Determining the Performance of Small Unmanned Aircraft
Introduction
The manufacturer may provide operational and performance information that contains the operational
performance data for the aircraft such as data pertaining to takeoff, climb, range, endurance, descent,
and landing. To be able to make practical use of the aircraft’s capabilities and limitations, it is essential
to understand the significance of the operational data. The use of this data in flying operations is
essential for safe and efficient operation. It should be emphasized that the manufacturers’ information
regarding performance data is not standardized. If manufacturer-published performance data is
unavailable, it is advisable to seek out performance data that may have already been determined and
published by other users of the same small UA manufacturer model and use that data as a starting
point.
Effect of Temperature on Density
Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its density. Conversely, decreasing the
temperature increases the density. Thus, the density of air varies inversely with temperature. This
statement is true only at a constant pressure.
In the atmosphere, both temperature and pressure decrease with altitude and have conflicting effects
upon density. However, a fairly rapid drop in pressure as altitude increases usually has a dominating
effect. Hence, pilots can expect the density to decrease with altitude.
Effect of Humidity (Moisture) on Density
The preceding paragraphs refer to air that is perfectly dry. In reality, it is never completely dry. The
small amount of water vapor suspended in the atmosphere may be almost negligible under certain
conditions, but in other conditions humidity may become an important factor in the performance of an
aircraft. Water vapor is lighter than air; consequently, moist air is lighter than dry air. Therefore, as the
water content of the air increases, the air becomes less dense, increasing density altitude and
decreasing performance. It is lightest or least dense when, in a given set of conditions, it contains the
maximum amount of water vapor.
Humidity, also called relative humidity, refers to the amount of water vapor contained in the
atmosphere and is expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount of water vapor the air can hold.
This amount varies with temperature. Warm air holds more water vapor, while cold air holds less.
Perfectly dry air that contains no water vapor has a relative humidity of zero percent, while saturated
air, which cannot hold any more water vapor, has a relative humidity of 100 percent. Humidity alone is
usually not considered an important factor in calculating density altitude and aircraft performance, but
it is a contributing factor.
8. Determining the Performance of Small Unmanned Aircraft
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Chapter 9:
Physiological Factors (Including Drugs and Alcohol) Affecting Pilot
Performance
Introduction
14 CFR part 107 does not allow operation of small UA if the remote PIC, the person manipulating the
controls, or Visual Observer (VO) is unable to safely carry out his or her responsibilities. It is the remote
PIC’s responsibility to ensure all crewmembers are not participating in the operation while impaired.
While drug and alcohol use are known to impair judgment, certain over-the-counter (OTC) medications
and medical conditions could also affect the ability to safely operate a small UA. For example, certain
antihistamines and decongestants may cause drowsiness. We also emphasize that part 107 prohibits a
person from serving as a remote PIC, person manipulating the controls, VO, or other crewmember if he
or she:
• Has consumed any alcoholic beverage within the preceding 8 hours
• Is under the influence of alcohol
• Has a blood alcohol concentration of .04 percent or greater
• Is using a drug that affects the person’s mental or physical capabilities.
There are certain medical conditions, such as epilepsy, may also create a risk to operations. It is the
remote PIC’s responsibility to determine that their medical condition is under control and they can
safely conduct a small UA operation.
Physiological/Medical Factors that Affect Pilot Performance
Important medical factors that a pilot should be aware of include the following:
• hyperventilation
• stress
• fatigue
• dehydration
• heatstroke
• the effects of alcohol and drugs
Hyperventilation
Hyperventilation is the excessive rate and depth of respiration leading to abnormal loss of carbon
dioxide from the blood. This condition occurs more often among pilots than is generally recognized.
It seldom incapacitates completely, but it causes disturbing symptoms that can alarm the
uninformed pilot. In such cases, increased breathing rate and anxiety further aggravate the
problem. Hyperventilation can lead to unconsciousness due to the respiratory system’s overriding
mechanism to regain control of breathing. Pilots encountering an unexpected stressful situation
may subconsciously increase their breathing rate.
Common symptoms of hyperventilation include:
• Visual impairment
• Unconsciousness
• Lightheaded or dizzy sensation
• Tingling sensations
Chapter 9: Physiological Factors (Including Drugs and Alcohol) Affecting Pilot Performance
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 46
• Hot and cold sensations
• Muscle spasms
The treatment for hyperventilation involves restoring the proper carbon dioxide level in the body.
Breathing normally is both the best prevention and the best cure for hyperventilation. In addition to
slowing the breathing rate, breathing into a paper bag or talking aloud helps to overcome
hyperventilation. Recovery is usually rapid once the breathing rate is returned to normal.
Stress
Stress is the body’s response to physical and psychological demands placed upon it. The body’s
reaction to stress includes releasing chemical hormones (such as adrenaline) into the blood and
increasing metabolism to provide more energy to the muscles. Blood sugar, heart rate, respiration,
blood pressure, and perspiration all increase. The term “stressor” is used to describe an element
that causes an individual to experience stress. Examples of stressors include physical stress (noise or
vibration), physiological stress (fatigue), and psychological stress (difficult work or personal
situations).
Stress falls into two broad categories: acute (short term) and chronic (long term). Acute stress
involves an immediate threat that is perceived as danger. This is the type of stress that triggers a
“fight or flight” response in an individual, whether the threat is real or imagined. Normally, a healthy
person can cope with acute stress and prevent stress overload. However, ongoing acute stress can
develop into chronic stress.
Chronic stress can be defined as a level of stress that presents an intolerable burden, exceeds the
ability of an individual to cope, and causes individual performance to fall sharply. Unrelenting
psychological pressures, such as loneliness, financial worries, and relationship or work problems can
produce a cumulative level of stress that exceeds a person’s ability to cope with the situation. When
stress reaches these levels, performance falls off rapidly. Pilots experiencing this level of stress are
not safe and should not exercise their airman privileges. Pilots who suspect they are suffering from
chronic stress should consult a physician.
Fatigue
Fatigue is frequently associated with pilot error. Some of the effects of fatigue include degradation
of attention and concentration, impaired coordination, and decreased ability to communicate.
These factors seriously influence the ability to make effective decisions. Physical fatigue results from
sleep loss, exercise, or physical work. Factors such as stress and prolonged performance of cognitive
work result in mental fatigue.
Like stress, fatigue falls into two broad categories: acute and chronic. Acute fatigue is short term and
is a normal occurrence in everyday living. It is the kind of tiredness people feel after a period of
strenuous effort, excitement, or lack of sleep. Rest after exertion and 8 hours of sound sleep
ordinarily cures this condition.
A special type of acute fatigue is skill fatigue. This type of fatigue has two main effects on
performance:
• Timing disruption—appearing to perform a task as usual, but the timing of each component is
slightly off. This makes the pattern of the operation less smooth because the pilot performs
each component as though it were separate, instead of part of an integrated activity.
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Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 47
• Disruption of the perceptual field—concentrating attention upon movements or objects in
the center of vision and neglecting those in the periphery. This is accompanied by loss of
accuracy and smoothness in control movements.
Acute fatigue has many causes, but the following are among the most important for the pilot:
• Mild hypoxia (oxygen deficiency)
• Physical stress
• Psychological stress
• Depletion of physical energy resulting from psychological stress
• Sustained psychological stress
Acute fatigue can be prevented by proper diet and adequate rest and sleep. A well-balanced diet
prevents the body from needing to consume its own tissues as an energy source. Adequate rest
maintains the body’s store of vital energy.
Chronic fatigue, extending over a long period of time, usually has psychological roots, although an
underlying disease is sometimes responsible. Continuous high-stress levels produce chronic fatigue.
Chronic fatigue is not relieved by proper diet and adequate rest and sleep and usually requires
treatment by a physician. An individual may experience this condition in the form of weakness,
tiredness, palpitations of the heart, breathlessness, headaches, or irritability. Sometimes chronic
fatigue even creates stomach or intestinal problems and generalized aches and pains throughout
the body. When the condition becomes serious enough, it leads to emotional illness.
If suffering from acute fatigue, a remote pilot should not operate a small UA. If fatigue occurs during
the operation of a small UA, no amount of training or experience can overcome the detrimental
effects. Getting adequate rest is the only way to prevent fatigue from occurring. Avoid flying a small
UA without a full night’s rest, after working excessive hours, or after an especially exhausting or
stressful day. Remote pilots who suspect they are suffering from chronic fatigue should consult a
physician.
Dehydration
Dehydration is the term given to a critical loss of water from the body. Causes of dehydration are
hot temperatures, wind, humidity, and diuretic drinks—coffee, tea, alcohol, and caffeinated soft
drinks. Some common signs of dehydration are headache, fatigue, cramps, sleepiness, and dizziness.
The first noticeable effect of dehydration is fatigue, which in turn makes top physical and mental
performance difficult, if not impossible. Flying a small UA for long periods in hot summer
temperatures or at high altitudes increases the susceptibility to dehydration because these
conditions tend to increase the rate of water loss from the body.
To help prevent dehydration, drink two to four quarts of water every 24 hours. Since each person is
physiologically different, this is only a guide. Most people are aware of the eight-glasses-a-day
guide: If each glass of water is eight ounces, this equates to 64 ounces, which is two quarts. If this
fluid is not replaced, fatigue progresses to dizziness, weakness, nausea, tingling of hands and feet,
abdominal cramps, and extreme thirst.
The key for pilots is to be continually aware of their condition. Most people become thirsty with a
1.5 quart deficit or a loss of 2 percent of total body weight. This level of dehydration triggers the
“thirst mechanism.” The problem is that the thirst mechanism arrives too late and is turned off too