Chapter 10: Aeronautical Decision-Making and Judgment
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 59
Decision-Making in a Dynamic Environment
A solid approach to decision-making is through the use of analytical models, such as the 5 Ps, 3P, and
DECIDE. Good decisions result when pilots gather all available information, review it, analyze the
options, rate the options, select a course of action, and evaluate that course of action for correctness.
In some situations, there is not always time to make decisions based on analytical decision-making
skills. A good example is a quarterback whose actions are based upon a highly fluid and changing
situation. He intends to execute a plan, but new circumstances dictate decision-making on the fly. This
type of decision-making is called automatic decision-making or naturalized decision-making.
[Figure 10-5B]
Chapter 10: Aeronautical Decision-Making and Judgment
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 60
Figure 10-5. The DECIDE model has been recognized worldwide. Its application is illustrated in column A while automatic/naturalistic
decision-making is shown in column B.
Automatic Decision-Making
For the past several decades, research into how people actually make decisions has revealed that
when pressed for time, experts faced with a task loaded with uncertainty first assess whether the
situation strikes them as familiar. Rather than comparing the pros and cons of different approaches,
they quickly imagine how one or a few possible courses of action in such situations will play out.
Chapter 10: Aeronautical Decision-Making and Judgment
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 61
Experts take the first workable option they can find. While it may not be the best of all possible
choices, it often yields remarkably good results.
The terms “naturalistic” and “automatic decision-making” have been coined to describe this type of
decision-making. The ability to make automatic decisions holds true for a range of experts from
firefighters to chess players. It appears the expert’s ability hinges on the recognition of patterns and
consistencies that clarify options in complex situations. Experts appear to make provisional sense of
a situation, without actually reaching a decision, by launching experience-based actions that in turn
trigger creative revisions.
This is a reflexive type of decision-making anchored in training and experience and is most often
used in times of emergencies when there is no time to practice analytical decision-making.
Naturalistic or automatic decision-making improves with training and experience, and a pilot will
find himself or herself using a combination of decision-making tools that correlate with individual
experience and training.
Operational Pitfalls
Although more experienced pilots are likely to make more automatic decisions, there are
tendencies or operational pitfalls that come with the development of pilot experience. These are
classic behavioral traps into which pilots have been known to fall. More experienced pilots, as a
rule, try to complete a flight as planned. The desire to meet these goals can have an adverse
effect on safety and contribute to an unrealistic assessment of piloting skills. These dangerous
tendencies or behavior patterns, which must be identified and eliminated, include the
operational pitfalls shown in Figure 10-6.
Chapter 10: Aeronautical Decision-Making and Judgment
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 62
Figure 10-6. Typical operational pitfalls requiring pilot awareness.
Stress Management
Everyone is stressed to some degree almost all of the time. A certain amount of stress is good since
it keeps a person alert and prevents complacency. Effects of stress are cumulative and, if the pilot
does not cope with them in an appropriate way, they can eventually add up to an intolerable
burden. Performance generally increases with the onset of stress, peaks, and then begins to fall off
rapidly as stress levels exceed a person’s ability to cope. The ability to make effective decisions
during flight can be impaired by stress. There are two categories of stress—acute and chronic. These
are both explained in Chapter 9, “Physiological Factors (Including Drugs and Alcohol) Affecting Pilot
Performance,” of this study guide.
There are several techniques to help manage the accumulation of life stresses and prevent stress
overload. For example, to help reduce stress levels, set aside time for relaxation each day or
maintain a program of physical fitness. To prevent stress overload, learn to manage time more
effectively to avoid pressures imposed by getting behind schedule and not meeting deadlines.
Chapter 10: Aeronautical Decision-Making and Judgment
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 63
Use of Resources
To make informed decisions during flight operations, a pilot must also become aware of the
available resources. Since useful tools and sources of information may not always be readily
apparent, learning to recognize these resources is an essential part of ADM training. Resources must
not only be identified, but a pilot must also develop the skills to evaluate whether there is time to
use a particular resource and the impact its use will have upon the safety of flight.
Figure 10-7. System stressors. Environmental, physiological, and psychological stress are factors that affect decision-making skills.
These stressors have a profound impact especially during periods of high workload.
Situational Awareness
Situational awareness is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions
within the five fundamental risk elements (flight, pilot, aircraft, environment, and type of operation
that comprise any given aviation situation) that affect safety before, during, and after the flight.
Maintaining situational awareness requires an understanding of the relative significance of all flight
related factors and their future impact on the flight. When a pilot understands what is going on and
has an overview of the total operation, he or she is not fixated on one perceived significant factor. Not
only is it important for a pilot to know the aircraft’s geographical location, it is also important he or she
understand what is happening.
Obstacles to Maintaining Situational Awareness
Fatigue, stress, and work overload can cause a pilot to fixate on a single perceived important item
and reduce an overall situational awareness of the flight. A contributing factor in many accidents is a
distraction that diverts the pilot’s attention from monitoring the aircraft.
Workload Management
Effective workload management ensures essential operations are accomplished by planning,
prioritizing, and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload. As experience is gained, a pilot learns
to recognize future workload requirements and can prepare for high workload periods during
times of low workload.
In addition, a pilot should listen to ATIS, Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS), or
Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS), if available, and then monitor the tower
frequency or Common Traffic Advisory Frequency (CTAF) to get a good idea of what traffic
conditions to expect.
Chapter 10: Aeronautical Decision-Making and Judgment
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 64
Recognizing a work overload situation is also an important component of managing workload.
The first effect of high workload is that the pilot may be working harder but accomplishing less.
As workload increases, attention cannot be devoted to several tasks at one time, and the pilot
may begin to focus on one item. When a pilot becomes task saturated, there is no awareness of
input from various sources, so decisions may be made on incomplete information and the
possibility of error increases.
When a work overload situation exists, a pilot needs to stop, think, slow down, and prioritize. It is
important to understand how to decrease workload.
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 65
Chapter 11:
Airport Operations
Introduction
The definition for airports refers to any area of land or water used or intended for landing or takeoff of
aircraft. This includes, within the five categories of airports listed below, special types of facilities
including seaplane bases, heliports, and facilities to accommodate tilt rotor aircraft. An airport includes
an area used or intended for airport buildings, facilities, as well as rights of way together with the
buildings and facilities.
Types of Airports
There are two types of airports—towered and non-towered. These types can be further subdivided to:
• Civil Airports—airports that are open to the general public.
• Military/Federal Government airports—airports operated by the military, National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), or other agencies of the Federal Government.
• Private Airports—airports designated for private or restricted use only, not open to the
general public.
Towered Airport
A towered airport has an operating control tower. Air traffic control (ATC) is responsible for
providing the safe, orderly, and expeditious flow of air traffic at airports where the type of
operations and/or volume of traffic requires such a service.
Non-towered Airport
A non-towered airport does not have an operating control tower. Two-way radio communications
are not required, although it is a good operating practice for pilots to monitor other aircraft on the
specified frequency for the benefit of other traffic in the area. The key to monitoring traffic at an
airport without an operating control tower is selection of the correct common frequency. The
acronym CTAF, which stands for Common Traffic Advisory Frequency, is synonymous with this
program. A CTAF is a frequency designated for the purpose of carrying out airport advisory practices
while operating to or from an airport without an operating control tower. The CTAF may be a
Universal Integrated Community (UNICOM), MULTICOM, FSS, or tower frequency and is identified in
appropriate aeronautical publications. UNICOM is a nongovernment air/ground radio
communication station that may provide airport information at public use airports where there is no
tower or FSS.
Non-towered airport traffic patterns are always entered at pattern altitude. How you enter the
pattern depends upon the direction of arrival. The preferred method for entering from the
downwind side of the pattern is to approach the pattern on a course 45 degrees to the downwind
leg and join the pattern at midfield.
Sources for Airport Data
When a remote pilot operates in the vicinity of an airport, it is important to review the current data for
that airport. This data provides the pilot with information, such as communication frequencies,
services available, closed runways, or airport construction. Three common sources of information are:
• Aeronautical Charts
Chapter 11: Airport Operations
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 66
• Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory)
• Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
• Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory)
The Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory) provides the most comprehensive
information on a given airport. It contains information on airports, heliports, and seaplane bases
that are open to the public. The Chart Supplement U.S. is published in seven books, which are
organized by regions and are revised every 56 days. The Chart Supplement U.S. is also available
digitally at www.faa.gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav. Figure 11-1 contains an excerpt from a
directory. For a complete listing of information provided in a Chart Supplement U.S. and how the
information may be decoded, refer to the “Legend Sample” located in the front of each Chart
Supplement U.S.
Figure 11-1. Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility Directory excerpt.
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)
Time-critical aeronautical information, which is of a temporary nature or not sufficiently known in
advance to permit publication, on aeronautical charts or in other operational publications, that
receives immediate dissemination by the NOTAM system. The NOTAM information could affect your
Chapter 11: Airport Operations
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 67
decision to make the flight. Although NOTAMs contain information such as taxiway and runway
closures, construction, communications, changes in status of navigational aids, and other
information essential to planned en route, terminal, or landing operations, a remote pilot can use
this information to help them make an informed decision about where and when to operate their
small UA. Exercise good judgment and common sense by carefully regarding the information readily
available in NOTAMs.
Prior to any flight, pilots should check for any NOTAMs that could affect their intended flight. For
more information on NOTAMs, refer back to Chapter 2, “Airspace Classification, Operating
Requirements, and Flight Restrictions,” of this study guide.
Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
The Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a recording of the local weather conditions
and other pertinent non-control information broadcast on a local frequency in a looped format. It is
normally updated once per hour but is updated more often when changing local conditions warrant.
Important information is broadcast on ATIS including weather, runways in use, specific ATC
procedures, and any airport construction activity that could affect taxi planning.
When the ATIS is recorded, it is given a code. This code is changed with every ATIS update. For
example, ATIS Alpha is replaced by ATIS Bravo. The next hour, ATIS Charlie is recorded, followed by
ATIS Delta and progresses down the alphabet.
Aeronautical Charts
An aeronautical chart is the road map for a pilot. The chart provides information that allows remote
pilots to obtain information about the areas where they intend to operate. The two aeronautical
charts used by VFR pilots are:
• Sectional
• VFR Terminal Area
A free catalog listing aeronautical charts and related publications including prices and instructions
for ordering is available at the Aeronautical Navigation Products website: www.aeronav.faa.gov.
Sectional Charts
Sectional charts are the most common charts used by pilots today. The charts have a scale of
1:500,000 (1 inch = 6.86 nautical miles (NM) or approximately 8 statute miles (SM)), which allows
for more detailed information to be included on the chart.
The charts provide an abundance of information, including airport data, navigational aids, airspace,
and topography. Figure 11-2 is an excerpt from the legend of a sectional chart. By referring to the
chart legend, a pilot can interpret most of the information on the chart. A pilot should also check
the chart for other legend information, which includes air traffic control (ATC) frequencies and
information on airspace. These charts are revised semiannually except for some areas outside the
conterminous United States where they are revised annually.
Chapter 11: Airport Operations
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 68
Figure 11-2. Sectional chart and legend.
Latitude and Longitude (Meridians and Parallels)
The equator is an imaginary circle equidistant from the
poles of the Earth. Circles parallel to the equator (lines
running east and west) are parallels of latitude. They are
used to measure degrees of latitude north (N) or south
(S) of the equator. The ang ular distance from the
equator to the pole is one -fourth of a circle or 90°. The
48 conterminous states of the United States are located
between 25° and 49° N latitude. The arrows in
Figure 11-3 labeled “Latitude” point to lines of latitude.
Meridians of longitude are drawn from the North Pole to
the South Pole and are at right angles to the Equator.
The “Prime Meridian,” which passes through Greenwich,
England, is used as the zero line from which
measurements are made in degrees east (E) and west
(W) to 18 0°. The 48 conterminous states of the United
Figure 11-3. Meridians and parallels—the basis of
measuring time, distance, and direction.
Chapter 11: Airport Operations
Remote Pilot – Small Unmanned Aircraft Systems Study Guide 69
States are between 67° and 125° W longitude. The arrows in Figure 11-3 labeled “Longitude” point to
lines of longitude.
Any specific geographical point can be located by reference to its longitude and latitude. Washington,
D.C., for example, is approximately 39° N latitude, 77° W longitude. Chicago is approximately 42° N
latitude, 88° W longitude.
Variation
Variation is the angle between true north ( TN) and
magnetic north (MN). It is expressed as east
variation or west variation depending upon
whether MN is to the east or west of TN.
The north magnetic pole is located close to 71° N
latitude, 96° W longitude and is about 1,300 miles
from the geographic or true north pole, as
indicated in Figure 11-4. If the Ear th were
uniformly magnetized, the compass needle would
point toward the magnetic pole, in which case the
variation between TN (as shown by the
geographical meridians) and MN (as shown by the
magnetic meridians) could be measured at any
intersection of the meridians.
Actually, the Earth is not uniformly magnetized. In
the United States, the needle usually points in the
general direction of the magnetic pole, but it may
vary in certain geographical localities by many
degrees. Consequently, the exact amount of
variation at thousands of selected locations in the
United States has been carefully determined. The
amount and the direction of variation, which
change slightly from time to time, are shown on
most aeronautical charts as broken magenta lines
called isogonic lines t hat connect points of equal
magnetic variation. (The line connecting points at
which there is no variation between TN and MN is
the agonic line.) An isogonic chart is shown in
Figure 11-5. Minor bends and turns in the isogonic
and agonic lines are caused b y unusual geological
conditions affecting magnetic forces in these areas.
Antenna Towers
Extreme caution should be exercised when flying less
than 2,000 feet AGL because of numerous ske letal
structures, such as radio and television antenna
towers, that exceed 1,000 feet AGL with some
Figure 11-4. Magnetic meridians are in red while the lines of
longitude and latitude are in blue. From these lines of variation
(magnetic meridians), on can determine the effect of local
magnetic variations on a magnetic compass.
Figure 11-5. Note the agonic line where magnetic variation is
zero.