the particular helicopter being flown. Normally, in heli-
copters with low climb rates, 500 f.p.m. is appropriate,
in helicopters capable of high climb rates, use a rate of
1,000 f.p.m.
To enter a constant rate climb, increase power to the
approximate setting for the desired rate. As power is
applied, the airspeed indicator is primary for pitch until
the vertical speed approaches the desired rate. At this
time, the vertical speed indicator becomes primary for
pitch. Change pitch attitude by reference to the attitude
indicator to maintain the desired vertical speed. When
the VSI becomes primary for pitch, the airspeed indica-
tor becomes primary for power. Primary and supporting
instruments for a stabilized constant rate climb are illus-
trated in figure 12-19. Adjust power to maintain desired
airspeed. Pitch attitude and power corrections should be
closely coordinated. To illustrate this, if the vertical
speed is correct but the airspeed is low, add power. As
power is increased, it may be necessary to lower the
pitch attitude slightly to avoid increasing the vertical
rate. Adjust the pitch attitude smoothly to avoid over-
controlling. Small power corrections usually will be
sufficient to bring the airspeed back to the desired indi-
cation.
LEVELOFF
The leveloff from a constant airspeed climb must be
started before reaching the desired altitude. Although the
amount of lead varies with the helicopter being flown
and your piloting technique, the most important factor is
vertical speed. As a rule of thumb, use 10 percent of the
vertical velocity as your lead point. For example, if the
rate of climb is 500 f.p.m., initiate the leveloff approxi-
mately 50 feet before the desired altitude. When the
proper lead altitude is reached, the altimeter becomes
primary for pitch. Adjust the pitch attitude to the level
flight attitude for that airspeed. Cross-check the altime-
ter and VSI to determine when level flight has been
attained at the desired altitude. To level off at cruise air-
speed, if this speed is higher than climb airspeed, leave
the power at the climb power setting until the airspeed
approaches cruise airspeed, then reduce it to the cruise
power setting.
The leveloff from a constant rate climb is accomplished
in the same manner as the leveloff from a constant air-
speed climb.
STRAIGHT DESCENTS (CONSTANT
AIRSPEED AND CONSTANT RATE)
A descent may be performed at any normal airspeed the
helicopter is capable of, but the airspeed must be deter-
mined prior to entry. The technique is determined by
whether you want to perform a constant airspeed or a
constant rate descent.
ENTRY
If your airspeed is higher than descending airspeed, and
you wish to make a constant airspeed descent at the
descending airspeed, reduce power to the descending
power setting and maintain a constant altitude using
cyclic pitch control. When you approach the descend-
ing airspeed, the airspeed indicator becomes primary
for pitch, and the torque meter is primary for power. As
you hold the airspeed constant, the helicopter begins to
descend. For a constant rate descent, reduce the power
50 60 70
TORQUE
PERCENT
□ Supporting□
Power□
□
Supporting Pitch□
and Bank
Primary Bank
Primary Power
Primary PitchSupporting Bank
Figure 12-19. Flight instrument indications in a stabilized constant rate climb.
to the approximate setting for the desired rate. If the
descent is started at the descending airspeed, the air-
speed indicator is primary for pitch until the VSI
approaches the desired rate. At this time, the vertical
speed indicator becomes primary for pitch, and the
airspeed indicator becomes primary for power.
Coordinate power and pitch attitude control as was
described earlier for constant rate climbs.
LEVELOFF
The leveloff from a constant airspeed descent may be
made at descending airspeed or at cruise airspeed, if
this is higher than descending airspeed. As in a climb
leveloff, the amount of lead depends on the rate of
descent and control technique. For a leveloff at
descending airspeed, the lead should be approximately
10 percent of the vertical speed. At the lead altitude,
simultaneously increase power to the setting necessary
to maintain descending airspeed in level flight. At this
point, the altimeter becomes primary for pitch, and the
airspeed indicator becomes primary for power.
To level off at a higher airspeed than descending air-
speed, increase the power approximately 100 to 150 feet
prior to reaching the desired altitude. The power setting
should be that which is necessary to maintain the
desired airspeed in level flight. Hold the vertical speed
constant until approximately 50 feet above the desired
altitude. At this point, the altimeter becomes primary
for pitch, and the airspeed indicator becomes primary
for power. The leveloff from a constant rate descent
should be accomplished in the same manner as the lev-
eloff from a constant airspeed descent.
COMMON ERRORS DURING STRAIGHT CLIMBS
AND DESCENTS
1. Failure to maintain heading.
2. Improper use of power.
3. Poor control of pitch attitude.
4. Failure to maintain proper pedal trim.
5. Failure to level off on desired altitude.
TURNS
When making turns by reference to the flight instru-
ments, they should be made at a definite rate. Turns
described in this chapter are those that do not exceed a
standard rate of 3° per second as indicated on the turn-
and-slip indicator. True airspeed determines the angle
of bank necessary to maintain a standard rate turn. A
rule of thumb to determine the approximate angle of
bank required for a standard rate turn is to divide your
airspeed by 10 and add one-half the result. For exam-
ple, at 60 knots, approximately 9° of bank is required
(60 ÷ 10 = 6 + 3 = 9); at 80 knots, approximately 12° of
bank is needed for a standard rate turn.
To enter a turn, apply lateral cyclic in the direction of the
desired turn. The entry should be accomplished
smoothly, using the attitude indicator to establish the
approximate bank angle. When the turn indicator indi-
cates a standard rate turn, it becomes primary for bank.
The attitude indicator now becomes a supporting instru-
ment. During level turns, the altimeter is primary for
pitch, and the airspeed indicator is primary for power.
Primary and supporting instruments for a stabilized stan-
dard rate turn are illustrated in figure 12-20. If an
Figure 12-20. Flight instrument indications for a standard rate turn to the left.
50 60 70
TORQUE
PERCENT
□Primary Bank Initially□
Supporting Pitch
Primary Power Primary Pitch
Supporting PitchPrimary Bank as□
Turn is Established
Supporting□
Power□
□
increase in power is required to maintain airspeed, slight
forward cyclic pressure may be required since the heli-
copter tends to pitch up as collective pitch angle is
increased. Apply pedal trim, as required, to keep the ball
centered.
To recover to straight-and-level flight, apply cyclic in
the direction opposite the turn. The rate of roll-out
should be the same as the rate used when rolling into
the turn. As you initiate the turn recover, the attitude
indicator becomes primary for bank. When the helicop-
ter is approximately level, the heading indicator
becomes primary for bank as in straight-and-level
flight. Cross-check the airspeed indicator and ball
closely to maintain the desired airspeed and pedal trim.
TURNS TO A PREDETERMINED HEADING
A helicopter turns as long as its lateral axis is tilted; there-
fore, the recovery must start before the desired heading is
reached. The amount of lead varies with the rate of turn
and your piloting technique.
As a guide, when making a 3° per second rate of turn,
use a lead of one-half the bank angle. For example, if
you are using a 12° bank angle, use half of that, or 6°,
as the lead point prior to your desired heading. Use this
lead until you are able to determine the exact amount
required by your particular technique. The bank angle
should never exceed the number of degrees to be
turned. As in any standard rate turn, the rate of recov-
ery should be the same as the rate for entry. During
turns to predetermined headings, cross-check the pri-
mary and supporting pitch, bank, and power instru-
ments closely.
TIMED TURNS
A timed turn is a turn in which the clock and turn-and-
slip indicator are used to change heading a definite
number of degrees in a given time. For example, using
a standard rate turn, a helicopter turns 45° in 15 sec-
onds. Using a half-standard rate turn, the helicopter
turns 45° in 30 seconds. Timed turns can be used if
your heading indicator becomes inoperative.
Prior to performing timed turns, the turn coordinator
should be calibrated to determine the accuracy of its
indications. To do this, establish a standard rate turn by
referring to the turn-and-slip indicator. Then as the
sweep second hand of the clock passes a cardinal point
(12, 3, 6, or 9), check the heading on the heading indi-
cator. While holding the indicated rate of turn constant,
note the heading changes at 10-second intervals. If the
helicopter turns more or less than 30° in that interval, a
smaller or larger deflection of the needle is necessary
to produce a standard rate turn. When you have cali-
brated the turn-and-slip indicator during turns in each
direction, note the corrected deflections, if any, and
apply them during all timed turns.
You use the same cross-check and control technique in
making timed turns that you use to make turns to a pre-
determined heading, except that you substitute the
clock for the heading indicator. The needle of the turn-
and-slip indicator is primary for bank control, the
altimeter is primary for pitch control, and the airspeed
indicator is primary for power control. Begin the roll-in
when the clock’s second hand passes a cardinal point,
hold the turn at the calibrated standard-rate indication,
or half-standard-rate for small changes in heading, and
begin the roll-out when the computed number of sec-
onds has elapsed. If the roll-in and roll-out rates are the
same, the time taken during entry and recovery need
not be considered in the time computation.
If you practice timed turns with a full instrument panel,
check the heading indicator for the accuracy of your
turns. If you execute the turns without the heading indi-
cator, use the magnetic compass at the completion of
the turn to check turn accuracy, taking compass devia-
tion errors into consideration.
CHANGE OF AIRSPEED IN TURNS
Changing airspeed in turns is an effective maneuver for
increasing your proficiency in all three basic instru-
ment skills. Since the maneuver involves simultaneous
changes in all components of control, proper execution
requires a rapid cross-check and interpretation, as well
as smooth control. Proficiency in the maneuver also
contributes to your confidence in the instruments dur-
ing attitude and power changes involved in more com-
plex maneuvers.
Pitch and power control techniques are the same as
those used during airspeed changes in straight-and-
level flight. As discussed previously, the angle of bank
necessary for a given rate of turn is proportional to the
true airspeed. Since the turns are executed at standard
rate, the angle of bank must be varied in direct pro-
portion to the airspeed change in order to maintain a
constant rate of turn. During a reduction of airspeed,
you must decrease the angle of bank and increase the
pitch attitude to maintain altitude and a standard rate
turn.
The altimeter and the needle on the turn indicator
should remain constant throughout the turn. The
altimeter is primary for pitch control, and the turn nee-
dle is primary for bank control. The torque meter is
primary for power control while the airspeed is chang-
ing. As the airspeed approaches the new indication, the
airspeed indicator becomes primary for power control.
Two methods of changing airspeed in turns may be
used. In the first method, airspeed is changed after the
turn is established. In the second method, the airspeed
change is initiated simultaneously with the turn entry.
The first method is easier, but regardless of the method
used, the rate of cross-check must be increased as you
reduce power. As the helicopter decelerates, check the
altimeter and VSI for needed pitch changes, and the
bank instruments for needed bank changes. If the needle
of the turn-and-slip indicator shows a deviation from
the desired deflection, change the bank. Adjust pitch
attitude to maintain altitude. When the airspeed
approaches that desired, the airspeed indicator becomes
primary for power control. Adjust the torque meter to
maintain the desired airspeed. Use pedal trim to ensure
the maneuver is coordinated.
Until your control technique is very smooth, frequently
cross-check the attitude indicator to keep from over-
controlling and to provide approximate bank angles
appropriate for the changing airspeeds.
30° BANK TURN
A turn using 30° of bank is seldom necessary, or advis-
able, in IMC, but it is an excellent maneuver to increase
your ability to react quickly and smoothly to rapid
changes of attitude. Even though the entry and recov-
ery technique are the same as for any other turn, you
will probably find it more difficult to control pitch
because of the decrease in vertical lift as the bank
increases. Also, because of the decrease in vertical lift,
there is a tendency to lose altitude and/or airspeed.
Therefore, to maintain a constant altitude and airspeed,
additional power is required. You should not initiate a
correction, however, until the instruments indicate the
need for a correction. During the maneuver, note the
need for a correction on the altimeter and vertical speed
indicator, then check the indications on the attitude
indicator, and make the necessary adjustments. After
you have made this change, again check the altimeter
and vertical speed indicator to determine whether or
not the correction was adequate.
CLIMBING AND DESCENDING TURNS
For climbing and descending turns, the techniques
described earlier for straight climbs and descents and
those for standard rate turns are combined. For practice,
start the climb or descent and turn simultaneously. The
primary and supporting instruments for a stabilized con-
stant airspeed left climbing turn are illustrated in figure
12-21. The leveloff from a climbing or descending turn
is the same as the leveloff from a straight climb or
descent. To recover to straight-and-level flight, you may
stop the turn and then level off, level off and then stop
the turn, or simultaneously level off and stop the turn.
During climbing and descending turns, keep the ball of
the turn indicator centered with pedal trim.
COMPASS TURNS
The use of gyroscopic heading indicators make head-
ing control very easy. However, if the heading indica-
tor fails or your helicopter does not have one installed,
you must use the magnetic compass for heading refer-
ence. When making compass-only turns, you need to
adjust for the lead or lag created by acceleration and
deceleration errors so that you roll out on the desired
heading. When turning to a heading of north, the lead
for the roll-out must include the number of degrees of
your latitude plus the lead you normally use in recov-
ery from turns. During a turn to a south heading, main-
tain the turn until the compass passes south the number
50 60 70
TORQUE
PERCENT
□ Primary□
Power□
□
Supporting Pitch□
and Bank
Primary Bank
Primary Pitch
Supporting Pitch
Figure 12-21. Flight instrument indications for a stabilized left climbing turn at a constant airspeed.
COMMON ERRORS DURING
UNUSUAL ATTITUDE RECOVERIES
1. Failure to make proper pitch correction.
2. Failure to make proper bank correction.
3. Failure to make proper power correction.
4. Overcontrol of pitch and/or bank attitude.
5. Overcontrol of power.
6. Excessive loss of altitude.
EMERGENCIES
Emergencies under instrument flight are handled simi-
larly to those occurring during VFR flight. A thorough
knowledge of the helicopter and its systems, as well as
good aeronautical knowledge and judgment, prepares
you to better handle emergency situations. Safe opera-
tions begin with preflight planning and a thorough pre-
flight. Plan your route of flight so that there are adequate
landing sites in the event you have to make an emer-
gency landing. Make sure you have all your resources,
such as maps, publications, flashlights, and fire extin-
guishers readily available for use in an emergency.
During any emergency, you should first fly the aircraft.
This means that you should make sure the helicopter is
under control, including the determination of emergency
landing sites. Then perform the emergency checklist
memory items, followed by written items in the RFM.
Once all these items are under control, you should notify
ATC. Declare any emergency on the last assigned ATC
frequency, or if one was not issued, transmit on the emer-
gency frequency 121.5. Set the transponder to the emer-
gency squawk code 7700. This code triggers an alarm or
a special indicator in radar facilities.
Most in-flight emergencies, including low fuel and a
complete electrical failure, require you to land as soon
as possible. In the event of an electrical fire, turn all non-
essential equipment off and land immediately . Some
essential electrical instruments, such as the attitude indi-
cator, may be required for a safe landing. A navigation
radio failure may not require an immediate landing as
long as the flight can continue safely. In this case, you
should land as soon as practical. ATC may be able to
provide vectors to a safe landing area. For the specific
details on what to do during an emergency, you should
refer to the RFM for the helicopter you are flying.
of degrees of your latitude, minus your normal roll-out
lead. For example, when turning from an easterly
direction to north, where the latitude is 30°, start the
roll-out when the compass reads 037° (30° plus one-
half the 15° angle of bank, or whatever amount is
appropriate for your rate of roll-out). When turning
from an easterly direction to south, start the roll-out
when the magnetic compass reads 203° (180° plus 30°
minus one-half the angle of bank). When making sim-
ilar turns from a westerly direction, the appropriate
points at which to begin your roll-out would be 323°
for a turn to north, and 157° for a turn to south.
COMMON ERRORS DURING TURNS
1. Failure to maintain desired turn rate.
2. Failure to maintain altitude in level turns.
3. Failure to maintain desired airspeed.
4. Variation in the rate of entry and recovery.
5. Failure to use proper lead in turns to a heading.
6. Failure to properly compute time during timed turns.
7. Failure to use proper leads and lags during the
compass turns.
8. Improper use of power.
9. Failure to use proper pedal trim.
UNUSUAL ATTITUDES
Any maneuver not required for normal helicopter instru-
ment flight is an unusual attitude and may be caused by
any one or a combination of factors, such as turbulence,
disorientation, instrument failure, confusion, preoccupa-
tion with cockpit duties, carelessness in cross-checking,
errors in instrument interpretation, or lack of proficiency
in aircraft control. Due to the instability characteristics
of the helicopter, unusual attitudes can be extremely crit-
ical. As soon as you detect an unusual attitude, make a
recovery to straight-and-level flight as soon as possible
with a minimum loss of altitude.
To recover from an unusual attitude, correct bank and
pitch attitude, and adjust power as necessary. All com-
ponents are changed almost simultaneously, with little
lead of one over the other. You must be able to perform
this task with and without the attitude indicator. If the
helicopter is in a climbing or descending turn, correct
bank, pitch, and power. The bank attitude should be
corrected by referring to the turn-and-slip indicator and
attitude indicator. Pitch attitude should be corrected by
reference to the altimeter, airspeed indicator, VSI, and
attitude indicator. Adjust power by referring to the air-
speed indicator and torque meter.
Since the displacement of the controls used in recover-
ies from unusual attitudes may be greater than those for
normal flight, take care in making adjustments as
straight-and-level flight is approached. Cross-check the
other instruments closely to avoid overcontrolling.
Land as soon as possible—Land without delay at the nearest suitable
area, such as an open field, at which a safe approach and landing is
assured.
Land immediately—The urgency of the landing is paramount. The pri-
mary consideration is to assure the survival of the occupants. Landing in
trees, water, or other unsafe areas should be considered only as a last
resort.
Land as soon as practical—The landing site and duration of flight are
at the discretion of the pilot. Extended flight beyond the nearest
approved landing area is not recommended.
AUTOROTATIONS
Both straight-ahead and turning autorotations should
be practiced by reference to instruments. This training
will ensure that you can take prompt corrective action
to maintain positive aircraft control in the event of an
engine failure.
To enter autorotation, reduce collective pitch smoothly
to maintain a safe rotor r.p.m. and apply pedal trim to
keep the ball of the turn-and-slip indicator centered.
The pitch attitude of the helicopter should be approxi-
mately level as shown by the attitude indicator. The
airspeed indicator is the primary pitch instrument and
should be adjusted to the recommended autorotation
speed. The heading indicator is primary for bank in a
straight-ahead autorotation. In a turning autorotation, a
standard rate turn should be maintained by reference to
the needle of the turn-and-slip indicator.
COMMON ERRORS DURING AUTOROTATIONS
1. Uncoordinated entry due to improper pedal trim.
2. Poor airspeed control due to improper pitch attitude.
3. Poor heading control in straight-ahead autorotations.
4. Failure to maintain proper rotor r.p.m.
5. Failure to maintain a standard rate turn during turn-
ing autorotations.
SERVO FAILURE
Most helicopters certified for single-pilot IFR flight are
required to have autopilots, which greatly reduces pilot
workload. If an autopilot servo fails, however, you
have to resume manual control of the helicopter. How
much your workload increases, depends on which
servo fails. If a cyclic servo fails, you may want to land
immediately as the workload increases tremendously.
If an antitorque or collective servo fails, you might be
able to continue to the next suitable landing site.
INSTRUMENT TAKEOFF
This maneuver should only be performed as part of
your training for an instrument rating. The procedures
and techniques described here should be modified, as
necessary, to conform with those set forth in the operat-
ing instructions for the particular helicopter being
flown.
Adjust the miniature aircraft in the attitude indicator,
as appropriate, for the aircraft being flown. After the
helicopter is aligned with the runway or takeoff pad, to
prevent forward movement of a helicopter equipped
with a wheel-type landing gear, set the parking brake
or apply the toe brakes. If the parking brake is used, it
must be unlocked after the takeoff has been completed.
Apply sufficient friction to the collective pitch control to
minimize overcontrolling and to prevent creeping.
Excessive friction should be avoided since this limits
collective pitch movement.
After checking all instruments for proper indications,
start the takeoff by applying collective pitch and a prede-
termined power setting. Add power smoothly and
steadily to gain airspeed and altitude simultaneously and
to prevent settling to the ground. As power is applied and
the helicopter becomes airborne, use the antitorque ped-
als initially to maintain the desired heading. At the same
time, apply forward cyclic to begin accelerating to
climbing airspeed. During the initial acceleration, the
pitch attitude of the helicopter, as read on the attitude
indicator, should be one to two bar widths low. The pri-
mary and supporting instruments after becoming airborne
are illustrated in figure 12-22. As the airspeed increases
50 60 70
TORQUE
PERCENT
□ Primary□
Power□
□
Primary Pitch□
Supporting Bank
Supporting Pitch
Supporting Bank
Supporting Pitch
Supporting PitchPrimary Bank
Figure 12-22. Flight instrument indications during an instrument takeoff.
to the appropriate climb airspeed, adjust pitch gradually
to climb attitude. As climb airspeed is reached, reduce
power to the climb power setting and transition to a fully
coordinated straight climb.
During the initial climbout, minor heading correc-
tions should be made with pedals only until suffi-
cient airspeed is attained to transition to fully
coordinated flight. Throughout the instrument take-
off, instrument cross-check and interpretations must
be rapid and accurate, and aircraft control positive
and smooth.
COMMON ERRORS DURING INSTRUMENT
TAKEOFFS
1. Failure to maintain heading.
2. Overcontrolling pedals.
3. Failure to use required power.
4. Failure to adjust pitch attitude as climbing air-
speed is reached.