aligned with the downwind corner of the field.
However, since the crosswind is now pushing you
away from the field, you must establish the proper drift
correction by flying slightly into the wind. Therefore,
the turn to crosswind should be greater than a 90°
change in heading (position 3). If the turn has been
made properly, the field boundary again appears to be
one-fourth to one-half mile away. While on the cross-
wind leg, the wind correction should be adjusted, as
necessary, to maintain a uniform distance from the field
boundary (position 4).
As the next field boundary is being approached (posi-
tion 5), plan the turn onto the upwind leg. Since a wind
correction angle is being held into the wind and toward
the field while on the crosswind leg, this next turn
requires a turn of less than 90°. Since the crosswind
becomes a headwind, causing the groundspeed to
decrease during this turn, the bank initially must be
medium and progressively decreased as the turn pro-
ceeds. To complete the turn, time the rollout so that the
gyroplane becomes level at a point aligned with the
corner of the field just as the longitudinal axis of the
gyroplane again becomes parallel to the field boundary
(position 6). The distance from the field boundary
should be the same as on the other sides of the field.
On the upwind leg, the wind is a headwind, which
results in an decreased groundspeed (position 7).
Consequently, enter the turn onto the next leg with a
fairly slow rate of roll-in, and a relatively shallow bank
(position 8). As the turn progresses, gradually increase
the bank angle because the headwind component is
diminishing, resulting in an increasing groundspeed.
During and after the turn onto this leg, the wind tends
to drift the gyroplane toward the field boundary. To
compensate for the drift, the amount of turn must be
less than 90° (position 9).
Again, the rollout from this turn must be such that as
the gyroplane becomes level, the nose of the gyroplane
is turned slightly away the field and into the wind to
correct for drift. The gyroplane should again be the
same distance from the field boundary and at the same
altitude, as on other legs. Continue the crosswind leg
until the downwind leg boundary is approached (posi-
tion 10). Once more you should anticipate drift and
turning radius. Since drift correction was held on the
crosswind leg, it is necessary to turn greater than 90° to
align the gyroplane parallel to the downwind leg
boundary. Start this turn with a medium bank angle,
gradually increasing it to a steeper bank as the turn pro-
gresses. Time the rollout to assure paralleling the
WIND
No Crab
Start Turn□
At Boundary
Complete Turn□
At Boundary
Turn less Than□
90ϒ—Roll Out□
With Crab Established
Crab Into□
Wind
Start Turn□
At Boundary
Turn More□
Than 90ϒ
Enter□
Pattern
Complete Turn□
At Boundary
No CrabStart Turn□
At Boundary
Turn More Than□
90ϒ—Roll Out□
With Crab Established
Complete Turn□
At Boundary
Crab Into□
Wind
Start Turn□
At Boundary
Turn Less□
Than 90ϒ
Complete Turn□
At Boundary
TrackW
ithNoW
indCorrection
Figure 20-10. Rectangular course. The numbered positions in the text refer to the numbers in this illustration.
boundary of the field as the gyroplane becomes level
(position 11).
If you have a direct headwind or tailwind on the upwind
and downwind leg, drift should not be encountered.
However, it may be difficult to find a situation where
the wind is blowing exactly parallel to the field bound-
aries. This makes it necessary to use a slight wind
correction angle on all the legs. It is important to antici-
pate the turns to compensate for groundspeed, drift, and
turning radius. When the wind is behind the gyroplane,
the turn must be faster and steeper; when it is ahead of
the gyroplane, the turn must be slower and shallower.
These same techniques apply while flying in an airport
traffic pattern.
S-TURNS
Another training maneuver you might use is the S-turn,
which helps you correct for wind drift in turns. This
maneuver requires turns to the left and right. The refer-
ence line used, whether a road, railroad, or fence,
should be straight for a considerable distance and
should extend as nearly perpendicular to the wind as
possible.
The object of S-turns is to fly a pattern of two half
circles of equal size on opposite sides of the reference
line. [Figure 20-11] The maneuver should be
performed at a constant altitude of 600 to 1,000 feet
above the terrain. S-turns may be started at any point;
however, during early training it may be beneficial to
start on a downwind heading. Entering downwind
permits the immediate selection of the steepest bank
that is desired throughout the maneuver. The discus-
sion that follows is based on choosing a reference line
that is perpendicular to the wind and starting the
maneuver on a downwind heading.
As the gyroplane crosses the reference line, immedi-
ately establish a bank. This initial bank is the steepest
used throughout the maneuver since the gyroplane is
headed directly downwind and the groundspeed is at its
highest. Gradually reduce the bank, as necessary, to
describe a ground track of a half circle. Time the turn
so that as the rollout is completed, the gyroplane is
crossing the reference line perpendicular to it and head-
ing directly upwind. Immediately enter a bank in the
opposite direction to begin the second half of the “S.”
Since the gyroplane is now on an upwind heading, this
bank (and the one just completed before crossing the
reference line) is the shallowest in the maneuver.
Gradually increase the bank, as necessary, to describe a
ground track that is a half circle identical in size to the
one previously completed on the other side of the refer-
ence line. The steepest bank in this turn should be
attained just prior to rollout when the gyroplane is
approaching the reference line nearest the downwind
heading. Time the turn so that as the rollout is com-
plete, the gyroplane is perpendicular to the reference
line and is again heading directly downwind.
In summary, the angle of bank required at any given
point in the maneuver is dependent on the ground-
speed. The faster the groundspeed, the steeper the
bank; the slower the groundspeed, the shallower
the bank. To express it another way, the more nearly
the gyroplane is to a downwind heading, the steeper the
bank; the more nearly it is to an upwind heading, the
shallower the bank. In addition to varying the angle of
bank to correct for drift in order to maintain the proper
radius of turn, the gyroplane must also be flown with a
drift correction angle (crab) in relation to its ground
track; except of course, when it is on direct upwind or
downwind headings or there is no wind. One would
normally think of the fore and aft axis of the gyroplane
as being tangent to the ground track pattern at each
point. However, this is not the case. During the turn on
the upwind side of the reference line (side from which
the wind is blowing), crab the nose of the gyroplane
toward the outside of the circle. During the turn on the
downwind side of the reference line (side of the refer-
ence line opposite to the direction from which the wind
is blowing), crab the nose of the gyroplane toward the
inside of the circle. In either case, it is obvious that the
gyroplane is being crabbed into the wind just as it is
when trying to maintain a straight ground track. The
amount of crab depends upon the wind velocity and
how nearly the gyroplane is to a crosswind position.
The stronger the wind, the greater the crab angle at any
given position for a turn of a given radius. The more
nearly the gyroplane is to a crosswind position, the
greater the crab angle. The maximum crab angle should
be at the point of each half circle farthest from the
reference line.
A standard radius for S-turns cannot be specified, since
the radius depends on the airspeed of the gyroplane, the
Points of□
Shallowest Bank
Points of□
Steepest Bank
WIND
□
Figure 20-11. S-turns across a road.
velocity of the wind, and the initial bank chosen for
entry.
TURNS AROUND A POINT
This training maneuver requires you to fly constant
radius turns around a preselected point on the ground
using a maximum bank of approximately 40°, while
maintaining a constant altitude. [Figure 20-12] Your
objective, as in other ground reference maneuvers, is to
develop the ability to subconsciously control the gyro-
plane while dividing attention between the flight path
and ground references, while still watching for other
air traffic in the vicinity.
The factors and principles of drift correction that are
involved in S-turns are also applicable in this maneu-
ver. As in other ground track maneuvers, a constant
radius around a point will, if any wind exists, require a
constantly changing angle of bank and angles of wind
correction. The closer the gyroplane is to a direct
downwind heading where the groundspeed is greatest,
the steeper the bank, and the faster the rate of turn
required to establish the proper wind correction angle.
The more nearly it is to a direct upwind heading where
the groundspeed is least, the shallower the bank, and
the slower the rate of turn required to establish
the proper wind correction angle. It follows then,
that throughout the maneuver, the bank and rate of
turn must be gradually varied in proportion to the
groundspeed.
The point selected for turns around a point should be
prominent and easily distinguishable, yet small enough
to present a precise reference. Isolated trees,
crossroads, or other similar small landmarks are usu-
ally suitable. The point should be in an area away from
communities, livestock, or groups of people on the
ground to prevent possible annoyance or hazard to
others. Since the maneuver is performed between 600
and 1,000 feet AGL, the area selected should also
afford an opportunity for a safe emergency landing in
the event it becomes necessary.
To enter turns around a point, fly the gyroplane on a
downwind heading to one side of the selected point at a
distance equal to the desired radius of turn. When any
significant wind exists, it is necessary to roll into the
initial bank at a rapid rate so that the steepest bank is
attained abeam the point when the gyroplane is headed
directly downwind. By entering the maneuver while
heading directly downwind, the steepest bank can be
attained immediately. Thus, if a bank of 40° is desired,
the initial bank is 40° if the gyroplane is at the correct
distance from the point. Thereafter, the bank is gradu-
ally shallowed until the point is reached where the
gyroplane is headed directly upwind. At this point, the
bank is gradually steepened until the steepest bank is
again attained when heading downwind at the initial
point of entry.
Just as S-turns require that the gyroplane be turned into
the wind, in addition to varying the bank, so do turns
around a point. During the downwind half of the circle,
the gyroplane’s nose must be progressively turned
toward the inside of the circle; during the upwind half,
the nose must be progressively turned toward the out-
side. The downwind half of the turn around the point
may be compared to the downwind side of the S-turn,
while the upwind half of the turn around a point may be
compared to the upwind side of the S-turn.
As you become experienced in performing turns
around a point and have a good understanding of the
effects of wind drift and varying of the bank angle and
wind correction angle, as required, entry into the
maneuver may be from any point. When entering this
maneuver at any point, the radius of the turn must be
carefully selected, taking into account the wind veloc-
ity and groundspeed, so that an excessive bank is not
required later on to maintain the proper ground track.
COMMON ERRORS DURING GROUND
REFERENCE MANEUVERS
1. Faulty entry technique.
2. Poor planning, orientation, or division of
attention.
3. Uncoordinated flight control application.
4. Improper correction for wind drift.
UPPERHALF OF CIRCLE
DOWNWIND HALF OF CIRCLE
Shallowest□
Bank
Steeper□
Bank
Steepest□
Bank
Shallower□
Bank
WIND
Figure 20-12. Turns around a point.
5. An unsymmetrical ground track during S-turns
across a road.
6. Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
7. Selection of a ground reference where there is no
suitable emergency landing site.
FLIGHT AT SLOW AIRSPEEDS
The purpose of maneuvering during slow flight is to
help you develop a feel for controlling the gyroplane at
slow airspeeds, as well as gain an understanding of how
load factor, pitch attitude, airspeed, and altitude control
relate to each other.
Like airplanes, gyroplanes have a specific amount of
power that is required for flight at various airspeeds, and
a fixed amount of power available from the engine. This
data can be charted in a graph format. [Figure 20-13]
The lowest point of the power required curve represents
the speed at which the gyroplane will fly in level flight
while using the least amount of power. To fly faster than
this speed, or slower, requires more power. While
practicing slow flight in a gyroplane, you will likely be
operating in the performance realm on the chart that is
left of the minimum power required speed. This is often
referred to as the “backside of the power curve,” or
flying “behind the power curve.” At these speeds, as
pitch is increased to slow the gyroplane, more and more
power is required to maintain level flight. At the point
where maximum power available is being used, no
further reduction in airspeed is possible without initiat-
ing a descent. This speed is referred to as the minimum
level flight speed. Because there is no excess power
available for acceleration, recovery from minimum level
flight speed requires lowering the nose of the gyroplane
and using altitude to regain airspeed. For this reason, it is
essential to practice slow flight at altitudes that allow
sufficient height for a safe recovery. Unintentionally
flying a gyroplane on the backside of the power curve
during approach and landing can be extremely
hazardous. Should a go-around become necessary,
sufficient altitude to regain airspeed and initiate a climb
may not be available, and ground contact may be
unavoidable.
Flight at slow airspeeds is usually conducted at air-
speeds 5 to 10 m.p.h. above the minimum level flight
airspeed. When flying at slow airspeeds, it is important
that your control inputs be smooth and slow to prevent
a rapid loss of airspeed due to the high drag increases
with small changes in pitch attitude. In addition, turns
should be limited to shallow bank angles. In order to
prevent losing altitude during turns, power must be
added. Directional control remains very good while
flying at slow airspeeds, because of the high velocity
slipstream produced by the increased engine power.
Recovery to cruise flight speed is made by lowering
the nose and increasing power. When the desired speed
is reached, reduce power to the normal cruise power
setting.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Improper entry technique.
2. Failure to establish and maintain an appropriate
airspeed.
3. Excessive variations of altitude and heading
when a constant altitude and heading are
specified.
4. Use of too steep a bank angle.
5. Rough or uncoordinated control technique.
HIGH RATE OF DESCENT
A gyroplane will descend at a high rate when flown at
very low forward airspeeds. This maneuver may be
entered intentionally when a steep descent is desired,
and can be performed with or without power. An unin-
tentional high rate of descent can also occur as a result
0 20 40 85 Airspeed, MPH
Power Available□
for Climb and□
Acceleration
Power□
Required
Engine Power□
Available at□
Full Throttle
Rate of ClimbDescent 20 45 85
Power Required & Power Available vs. Airspeed Rates of Climb & Descent at Full Throttle
0 Airspeed, MPH
TYPICAL GYROPLANE
Horsepower
Minimum Level Flight Speed
Figure 20-13. The low point on the power required curve is the speed that the gyroplane can fly while using the least amount of
power, and is also the speed that will result in a minimum sink rate in a power-off glide.
of failing to monitor and maintain proper airspeed. In
powered flight, if the gyroplane is flown below mini-
mum level flight speed, a descent results even though
full engine power is applied. Further reducing the air-
speed with aft cyclic increases the rate of descent. For
gyroplanes with a high thrust-to-weight ratio, this
maneuver creates a very high pitch attitude. To recover,
the nose of the gyroplane must lowered slightly to
exchange altitude for an increase in airspeed.
When operating a gyroplane in an unpowered glide,
slowing to below the best glide speed can also result in
a high rate of descent. As airspeed decreases, the rate of
descent increases, reaching the highest rate as forward
speed approaches zero. At slow airspeeds without the
engine running, there is very little airflow over the tail
surfaces and rudder effectiveness is greatly reduced.
Rudder pedal inputs must be exaggerated to maintain
effective yaw control. To recover, add power, if avail-
able, or lower the nose and allow the gyroplane to
accelerate to the proper airspeed. This maneuver
demonstrates the importance of maintaining the proper
glide speed during an engine-out emergency landing.
Attempting to stretch the glide by raising the nose
results in a higher rate of descent at a lower forward
speed, leaving less distance available for the selection
of a landing site.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Improper entry technique.
2. Failure to recognize a high rate of descent.
3. Improper use of controls during recovery.
4. Initiation of recovery below minimum recovery
altitude.
LANDINGS
Landings may be classified according to the landing
surface, obstructions, and atmospheric conditions.
Each type of landing assumes that certain conditions
exist. To meet the actual conditions, a combination of
techniques may be necessary.
NORMAL LANDING
The procedure for a normal landing in a gyroplane is
predicated on having a prepared landing surface and no
significant obstructions in the immediate area. After
entering a traffic pattern that conforms to established
standards for the airport and avoids the flow of fixed
wing traffic, a before landing checklist should be
reviewed. The extent of the items on the checklist is
dependent on the complexity of the gyroplane, and can
include fuel, mixture, carburetor heat, propeller, engine
instruments, and a check for traffic.
Gyroplanes experience a slight lag between control
input and aircraft response. This lag becomes more
apparent during the sensitive maneuvering required
for landing, and care must be taken to avoid overcor-
recting for deviations from the desired approach path.
After the turn to final, the approach airspeed appropri-
ate for the gyroplane should be established. This speed
is normally just below the minimum power required
speed for the gyroplane in level flight. During the
approach, maintain this airspeed by making adjust-
ments to the gyroplane’s pitch attitude, as necessary.
Power is used to control the descent rate.
Approximately 10 to 20 feet above the runway, begin
the flare by gradually increasing back pressure on the
cyclic to reduce speed and decrease the rate of descent.
The gyroplane should reach a near-zero rate of descent
approximately 1 foot above the runway with the power
at idle. Low airspeed combined with a minimum of
propwash over the tail surfaces reduces rudder
effectiveness during the flare. If a yaw moment is
encountered, use whatever rudder control is required
to maintain the desired heading. The gyroplane should
be kept laterally level and with the longitudinal axis in
the direction of ground track. Landing with sideward
motion can damage the landing gear and must be
avoided. In a full-flare landing, attempt to hold the
gyroplane just off the runway by steadily increasing
back pressure on the cyclic. This causes the gyroplane
to settle slowly to the runway in a slightly nose-high
attitude as forward momentum dissipates.
Ground roll for a full-flare landing is typically under
50 feet, and touchdown speed under 20 m.p.h. If a 20
m.p.h. or greater headwind exists, it may be necessary
to decrease the length of the flare and allow the gyro-
plane to touch down at a slightly higher airspeed to
prevent it from rolling backward on landing. After
touchdown, rotor r.p.m. decays rather rapidly. On
landings where brakes are required immediately after
touchdown, apply them lightly, as the rotor is still car-
rying much of the weight of the aircraft and too much
braking causes the tires to skid.
SHORT-FIELD LANDING
A short-field landing is necessary when you have a rel-
atively short landing area or when an approach must be
made over obstacles that limit the available landing
area. When practicing short-field landings, assume you
are making the approach and landing over a 50-foot
obstruction in the approach area.
To conduct a short-field approach and landing, fol-
low normal procedures until you are established on
the final approach segment. At this point, use aft
cyclic to reduce airspeed below the speed for mini-
mum sink. By decreasing speed, sink rate increases
and a steeper approach path is achieved, minimizing
the distance between clearing the obstacle and
making contact with the surface. [Figure 20-14] The
approach speed must remain fast enough, however,
to allow the flare to arrest the forward and vertical
speed of the gyroplane. If the approach speed is too
low, the remaining vertical momentum will result in
a hard landing. On a short-field landing with a slight
headwind, a touchdown with no ground roll is possi-
ble. Without wind, the ground roll is normally less
than 50 feet.
SOFT-FIELD LANDING
Use the soft-field landing technique when the landing
surface presents high wheel drag, such as mud, snow,
sand, tall grass or standing water. The objective is to
transfer the weight of the gyroplane from the rotor to
the landing gear as gently and slowly as possible. With
a headwind close to the touchdown speed of the
gyroplane, a power approach can be made close to the
minimum level flight speed. As you increase the nose
pitch attitude just prior to touchdown, add additional
power to cushion the landing. However, power should
be removed, just as the wheels are ready to touch. This
results is a very slow, gentle touchdown. In a strong
headwind, avoid allowing the gyroplane to roll rear-
ward at touchdown. After touchdown, smoothly and
gently lower the nosewheel to the ground. Minimize
the use of brakes, and remain aware that the nosewheel
could dig in the soft surface.
When no wind exists, use a steep approach similar to a
short-field landing so that the forward speed can be dis-
sipated during the flare. Use the throttle to cushion the
touchdown.
CROSSWIND LANDING
Crosswind landing technique is normally used in gyro-
planes when a crosswind of approximately 15 m.p.h. or
less exists. In conditions with higher crosswinds, it
becomes very difficult, if not impossible, to maintain
adequate compensation for the crosswind. In these con-
ditions, the slow touchdown speed of a gyroplane
allows a much safer option of turning directly into the
wind and landing with little or no ground roll. Deciding
when to use this technique, however, may be
complicated by gusting winds or the characteristics of
the particular landing area.
On final approach, establish a crab angle into the wind
to maintain a ground track that is aligned with the
extended centerline of the runway. Just before
touchdown, remove the crab angle and bank the
gyroplane slightly into the wind to prevent drift.
Maintain longitudinal alignment with the runway using
the rudder. In higher crosswinds, if full rudder deflec-
tion is not sufficient to maintain alignment with the run-
way, applying a slight amount of power can increase
rudder effectiveness. The length of the flare should be
reduced to allow a slightly higher touchdown speed than
that used in a no-wind landing. Touchdown is made on
the upwind main wheel first, with the other main wheel
settling to the runway as forward momentum is lost.
After landing, continue to keep the rotor tilted into the
wind to maintain positive control during the rollout.
HIGH-ALTITUDE LANDING
A high-altitude landing assumes a density altitude near
the limit of what is considered good climb performance
50'
Normal Approach
Short Field Approach
Figure 20-14. The airspeed used on a short-field approach is slower than that for a normal approach, allowing a steeper
approach path and requiring less runway.
for the gyroplane. When using the same indicated
airspeed as that used for a normal approach at lower
altitude, a high density altitude results in higher rotor
r.p.m. and a slightly higher rate of descent. The greater
vertical velocity is a result of higher true airspeed as
compared with that at low altitudes. When practicing
high-altitude landings, it is prudent to first learn normal
landings with a flare and roll out. Full flare, no roll
landings should not be attempted until a good feel for
aircraft response at higher altitudes has been acquired.
As with high-altitude takeoffs, it is also important to
consider the effects of higher altitude on engine
performance.
COMMON ERRORS DURING LANDING
1. Failure to establish and maintain a stabilized
approach.
2. Improper technique in the use of power.
3. Improper technique during flare or touchdown.
4. Touchdown at too low an airspeed with strong
headwinds, causing a rearward roll.
5. Poor directional control after touchdown.
6. Improper use of brakes.
GO-AROUND
The go-around is used to abort a landing approach
when unsafe factors for landing are recognized. If the
decision is made early in the approach to go around,
normal climb procedures utilizing V X and VY should
be used. A late decision to go around, such as after the
full flare has been initiated, may result in an airspeed
where power required is greater than power available.
When this occurs, a touchdown becomes unavoidable
and it may be safer to proceed with the landing than to
sustain an extended ground roll that would be required
to go around. Also, the pitch attitude of the gyroplane
in the flare is high enough that the tail would be con-
siderably lower than the main gear, and a touch down
with power on would result in a sudden pitch down and
acceleration of the aircraft. Control of the gyroplane
under these circumstances may be difficult.
Consequently, the decision to go around should be
made as early as possible, before the speed is reduced
below the point that power required exceeds power
available.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Failure to recognize a situation where a go-
around is necessary.
2. Improper application of power.
3. Failure to control pitch attitude.
4. Failure to maintain recommended airspeeds.
5. Failure to maintain proper track during climb out.
AFTER LANDING AND SECURING
The after-landing checklist should include such items
as the transponder, cowl flaps, fuel pumps, lights, and
magneto checks, when so equipped. The rotor blades
demand special consideration after landing, as turning
rotor blades can be hazardous to others. Never enter an
area where people or obstructions are present with the
rotor turning. To assist the rotor in slowing, tilt the
cyclic control into the prevailing wind or face the gyro-
plane downwind. When slowed to under approximately
75 r.p.m., the rotor brake may be applied, if available.
Use caution as the rotor slows, as excess taxi speed or
high winds could cause blade flap to occur. The blades
should be depitched when taxiing if a collective control
is available. When leaving the gyroplane, always
secure the blades with a tiedown or rotor brake.