LANDING AREA RECONNAISSANCE
AND PLANNING
When a landplane makes an approach at a towered air-
port, the pilot can expect that the runway surface will
be flat and free of obstructions. Wind information and
landing direction are provided by the tower. In water
operations, the pilot must make a number of judgments
about the safety and suitability of the landing area,
evaluate the characteristics of the water surface, deter-
mine wind direction and speed, and choose a landing
direction. It is rare for active airport runways to be
used by other vehicles, but common for seaplane pilots
to share their landing areas with boats, ships, swim-
mers, jet-skis, wind-surfers, or barges, as well as other
seaplanes.
It is usually a good practice to circle the area of
intended landing and examine it thoroughly for
obstructions such as pilings or floating debris, and to
note the direction of movement of any boats that may
be in or moving toward the intended landing site. Even
if the boats themselves will remain clear of the landing
area, look for wakes that could create hazardous swells
if they move into the touchdown zone. This is also the
time to look for indications of currents in moving
water. Note the position of any buoys marking pre-
ferred channels, hidden dangers, or off-limits areas
such as no-wake zones or swimming beaches. Just as it
is a good idea in a landplane to get a mental picture of
the taxiway arrangement at an unfamiliar airport prior
to landing, the seaplane pilot should plan a taxi route
that will lead safely and efficiently from the intended
touchdown area to the dock or mooring spot. This is
especially important if there is a significant wind that
could make turns difficult while taxiing or necessitate
sailing backward or sideways to the dock. If the water
is clear, and there is not much wind, it is possible to
see areas of waterweeds or obstructions lying below
the surface. Noting their position before landing can
prevent fouling the water rudders with weeds while
taxiing, or puncturing a float on a submerged snag. In
confined areas, it is essential to verify before landing
that there is sufficient room for a safe takeoff under the
conditions that are likely to prevail at the intended
departure time. While obstruction heights are regulated
in the vicinity of land airports and tall structures are
usually well marked, this is not the case with most
water landing areas. Be alert for towers, cranes, powerlines,
and the masts of ships and boats on the approach path.
Finally, plan a safe, conservative path for a go-around
should the landing need to be aborted.
Most established seaplane bases have a windsock, but
if one is not visible, there are many other cues to gauge
the wind direction and speed prior to landing. If there
are no strong tides or water currents, boats lying at
anchor weathervane and automatically point into the
wind. Be aware that some boats also set a stern anchor,
and thus do not move with changes in wind direction.
There is usually a glassy band of calm water on the
upwind shore of a lake. Sea gulls and other waterfowl
usually land into the wind and typically head into the
wind while swimming on the surface. Smoke, flags,
and the set of sails on sailboats also provide the pilot
with a fair approximation of the wind direction. If there
is an appreciable wind velocity, wind streaks parallel to
the wind form on the water. In light winds, they appear
as long, narrow, straight streaks of smooth water
through the wavelets. In winds of approximately 10
knots or more, foam accents the streaks, forming dis-
tinct white lines. Although wind streaks show direction
very accurately, the pilot must still determine which
end of the wind streak is upwind. For example, an east-
west wind streak could mean a wind from the east or
the west—it is up to the pilot to determine which.
[Figure 6-1]
Figure 6-1. Wind streaks show wind direction accurately, but
the pilot must determine which end of the streak is upwind.
Ch 06.qxd 8/25/04 10:45 AM Page 6-1
If there are whitecaps or foam on top of the waves, the
foam appears to move into the wind. This illusion is
caused by the motion of the waves, which move more
quickly than the foam. As the waves pass under the
foam, the foam appears to move in the opposite direc-
tion. The shape of shorelines and hills influences wind
direction, and may cause significant variations from
one area to another. Do not assume that because the
wind is from a certain direction on this side of the lake
that it is from the same direction on the other side.
Except for glassy water, it is usually best to plan to land
on the smoothest water available. When a swell system
is superimposed on a second swell system, some of the
waves may reinforce each other, resulting in higher
waves, while other waves cancel each other out, leav-
ing smoother areas. Often it is possible to avoid the
larger waves and land on the smooth areas.
In seaplanes equipped with retractable landing gear
(amphibians), it is extremely important to make certain
that the wheels are retracted when landing on water.
Wherever possible, make a visual check of the wheels
themselves, in addition to checking the landing gear
position indicators. A wheels-down landing on water is
almost certain to capsize the seaplane, and is far more
serious than landing the seaplane on land with the
wheels up. Many experienced seaplane pilots make a
point of saying out loud to themselves before every
water landing, “This is a water landing, so the wheels
should be up.” Then they confirm that each wheel is up
using externally mounted mirrors and other visual indi-
cators. Likewise, they verbally confirm that the wheels
are down before every landing on land. The water rud-
ders are also retracted for landings.
When planning the landing approach, be aware that the
seaplane has a higher sink rate than its landplane coun-
terpart at the same airspeed and power setting. With
some practice, it becomes easy to land accurately on a
predetermined spot . Landing near unfamiliar shore-
lines increases the possibility of encountering sub-
merged objects and debris.
Besides being safe, it is also very important for sea-
plane pilots to make a conscious effort to avoid inflict-
ing unnecessary noise on other people in the area.
Being considerate of others can often mean the differ-
ence between a warm welcome and the banning of
future seaplane activity in a particular location. The
actions of one pilot can result in the closing of a desir-
able landing spot to all pilots. People with houses along
the shore of a lake usually include the quiet as one of
the reasons they chose to live there. Sometimes high
terrain around a lake or the local topography of a shore-
line can reflect and amplify sound, so that a seaplane
sounds louder than it would otherwise. A good practice
is to cross populated shorelines no lower than 1,000
feet AGL whenever feasible. To the extent possible
consistent with safety, avoid overflying houses during
the landing approach. If making a go-around, turn back
over the water for the climbout, and reduce power
slightly after attaining a safe altitude and airspeed. A
reduction of 200 r.p.m. makes a significant difference
in the amount of sound that reaches the ground.
LANDING
In water landings, the major objectives are to touch
down at the lowest speed possible, in the correct pitch
attitude, without side drift, and with full control
throughout the approach, landing, and transition to
taxiing.
The correct pitch attitude at touchdown in a landplane
varies between wide limits. For example, wheel land-
ings in an airplane with conventional-gear, require a
nearly flat pitch attitude, with virtually zero angle of
attack, while a full-stall landing on a short field might
call for a nose-high attitude. The touchdown attitude
for a seaplane typically is very close to the attitude for
taxiing on the step. The nose may be a few degrees
higher. The objective is to touch down on the steps,
Figure 6-2. The touchdown attitude for most seaplanes is almost the same as for taxiing on the step.
Ch 06.qxd 8/25/04 10:45 AM Page 6-2
contact the water in a nose-down attitude, driving the
float bows underwater and capsizing the seaplane.
Raising the flaps can help keep the seaplane firmly on
the water. To end the step taxi, close the throttle and
gradually apply full up elevator as the seaplane slows.
CROSSWIND LANDING
Landing directly into the wind might not be practical
due to water traffic in the area, obstructions on or
under the water, or a confined landing area, such as a
river or canal. In landing a seaplane with any degree of
crosswind component, the objectives are the same as
when landing a landplane: to minimize sideways drift
during touchdown and maintain directional control
afterward. Because floats have so much more side area
than wheels, even a small amount of drift at touchdown
can create large sideways forces. This is important
because enough side force can lead to capsizing. Also,
the float hardware is primarily designed to take vertical
and fore-and-aft loads rather than side loads.
If the seaplane touches down while drifting sideways,
the sudden resistance as the floats contact the water
creates a skidding force that tends to push the down-
wind float deeper into the water. The combination of
the skidding force, wind, and weathervaning as the
seaplane slows down can lead to a loss of directional
control and a waterloop. If the downwind float sub-
merges and the wingtip contacts the water when the
seaplane is moving at a significant speed, the seaplane
could flip over. [Figure 6-3 on next page]
Floatplanes frequently have less crosswind component
capability than their landplane counterparts.
Directional control can be more difficult on water
because the surface is more yielding, there is less sur-
face friction than on land, and seaplanes lack brakes.
These factors increase the seaplane’s tendency to
weathervane into the wind.
One technique sometimes used to compensate for
crosswinds during water operations is the same as that
used on land; that is, by lowering the upwind wing
while holding a straight course with rudder. This cre-
ates a slip into the wind to offset the drifting tendency.
The apparent movement of the water’s surface during
the landing approach can be deceiving. Wave motion
may make it appear that the water is moving sideways,
but although the wind moves the waves, the water
itself remains virtually stationary. Waves are simply
an up-and-down motion of the water surface—the
water itself is not moving sideways. To detect side
drift over water and maintain a straight path during
landing, pick a spot on the shore or a stationary buoy
as an aim point. Lower the upwind wing just enough
to stop any drift, and use rudder to maintain a straight
with the sterns of the floats near or touching the water
at the same time. [Figure 6-2] If the nose is much
higher or lower, the excessive water drag puts unneces-
sary stress on the floats and struts, and can cause the
nose to pitch down, allowing the bows of the floats to
dig into the water. Touching down on the step keeps
water drag forces to a minimum and allows energy to
dissipate more gradually.
NORMAL LANDING
Make normal landings directly into the wind.
Seaplanes can be landed either power-off or power-on,
but power-on landings are generally preferred because
they give the pilot more positive control of the rate of
sink and the touchdown spot. To touch down at the
slowest possible speed, extend the flaps fully. Use
flaps, throttle, and pitch to control the glidepath and
establish a stabilized approach at the recommended
approach airspeed. The techniques for glidepath con-
trol are similar to those used in a landplane.
As the seaplane approaches the water’s surface,
smoothly raise the nose to the appropriate pitch atti-
tude for touchdown. As the floats contact the water,
use gentle back pressure on the elevator control to
compensate for any tendency of the nose to drop.
When the seaplane is definitely on the water, close
the throttle and maintain the touchdown attitude until
the seaplane begins to come off the step. Once it
begins to settle into the plowing attitude, apply full
up elevator to keep the nose as high as possible and
minimize spray hitting the propeller.
As the seaplane slows to taxi speed, lower the water
rudders to provide better directional control. Raise the
flaps and perform the after-landing checklist.
The greater the speed difference between the seaplane
and the water, the greater the drag at touchdown, and
the greater the tendency for the nose to pitch down.
This is why the touchdown is made at the lowest possi-
ble speed for the conditions. Many landplane pilots
transitioning to seaplanes are surprised at the shortness
of the landing run, in terms of both time and distance.
It is not uncommon for the landing run from touch-
down to idle taxi to take as little as 5 or 6 seconds.
Sometimes the pilot chooses to remain on the step after
touchdown. To do so, merely add sufficient power and
maintain the planing attitude immediately after touch-
down. It is important to add enough power to prevent
the seaplane from coming off the step, but not so much
that the seaplane is close to flying speed. With too much
taxi speed, a wave or swell could throw the seaplane into
the air without enough speed to make a controlled
landing. In that situation, the seaplane may stall and
Ch 06.qxd 8/25/04 10:45 AM Page 6-3
path. As the seaplane touches down on the upwind
float, the water drag will quickly slow the seaplane and
the other float will touch down as aerodynamic lift
decreases. Close the throttle, and as the seaplane’s
speed dissipates, increase aileron to hold the upwind
wing down. The seaplane is most unstable as it is com-
ing off the step and transitioning through the plowing
phase. Be ready for the seaplane to weathervane into the
wind as the air rudder becomes less effective. Many
pilots make a turn to the downwind side after landing to
minimize weathervaning until the seaplane has slowed
to taxi speed. Since the seaplane will weathervane
sooner or later, this technique reduces the centrifugal
force on the seaplane by postponing weathervaning until
speed has dissipated. Once the seaplane settles into the
displacement attitude, lower the water rudders for better
directional control. [Figure 6-4]
Another technique used to compensate for crosswinds
(preferred by many seaplane pilots) is the downwind
arc method. Seaplanes need not follow a straight path
during landing, and by choosing a curved path, the pilot
can create a sideward force (centrifugal force) to offset
the crosswind force. This is done by steering the sea-
plane in a downwind arc as shown in figure 6-5. During
the approach, the pilot merely plans a curved landing
path and follows this path to produce sufficient cen-
trifugal force to counter the wind force. During the
landing run, the pilot can adjust the amount of centrifu-
gal force by varying rudder pressure to increase or
decrease the rate of turn. This technique allows the
pilot to compensate for a changing wind force during
the water run.
Figure 6-5 shows that the tightest curve of the down-
wind arc is during the time the seaplane is traveling at
low speed. Faster speeds reduce the crosswind effect,
and at very slow speeds the seaplane can weathervane
into the wind without imposing large side loads or
stresses. Again, experience plays an important part in
successful operation during crosswinds. It is essential
that all seaplane pilots have thorough knowledge and
skill in these maneuvers.
Figure 6-3. Improper technique or excessive crosswind forces can result in an accident.
Vertical
Component
Horizontal
Component
Angle Exaggerated
for Clarity.
Figure 6-4. Dropping the upwind wing uses a horizontal com-
ponent of lift to counter the drift of a crosswind.
Ch 06.qxd 8/25/04 10:45 AM Page 6-4
DOWNWIND LANDING
Although downwind landings often require signifi-
cantly more water area, there are occasions when they
are more convenient or even safer than landing into the
wind. Sometimes landing upwind would mean a long,
slow taxi back along the landing path to get to the dock
or mooring area. If winds are less than 5 knots and there
is ample room, landing downwind could save taxi time.
Unless the winds are light, a downwind landing is sel-
dom necessary. Before deciding to land downwind, the
pilot needs a thorough knowledge of the landing char-
acteristics of the seaplane as well as the environmental
factors in the landing area.
As with a downwind landing in a landplane, the main
concern for a seaplane is the additional groundspeed
added by the wind to the normal approach speed. The
airspeed, of course, is the same whether landing
upwind or downwind, but the wind decreases ground-
speed in upwind landings and increases groundspeed
in downwind landings. While a landplane pilot seldom
thinks about the additional force placed on the landing
gear by a higher groundspeed at touchdown, it is a seri-
ous concern for the seaplane pilot. A small increase in
water speed translates into greatly increased water drag
as the seaplane touches down, increasing the tendency
of the seaplane to nose over. In light winds, this usually
presents little problem if the pilot is familiar with how
the seaplane handles when touching down at higher
speeds, and is anticipating the increased drag forces. In
higher winds, the nose-down force may exceed the
ability of the pilot or the flight controls to compensate,
and the seaplane will flip over at high speed. If the
water’s surface is rough, the higher touchdown speed
also subjects the floats and airframe to additional
pounding.
If there is a strong current, the direction of water flow
is a major factor in choosing a landing direction. The
speed of the current, a confined landing area, or the sur-
face state of the water may influence the choice of
landing direction more than the direction of the wind.
In calm or light winds, takeoffs usually are made in the
same direction as the flow of the current, but landings
may be made either with or against the flow of the cur-
rent, depending on a variety of factors. For example,
on a narrow river with a relatively fast current, the
speed of the current is often more significant than wind
direction, and the need to maintain control of the sea-
plane at taxi speed after the landing run may present
more challenges than the landing itself. It is imperative
that even an experienced seaplane pilot obtain detailed
information about such operations before attempting
them for the first time. Often the best source of infor-
mation is local pilots with comprehensive knowledge
of the techniques that work best in specific locations
and conditions.
GLASSY WATER LANDING
Flat, calm, glassy water certainly looks inviting and
may give the pilot a false sense of safety. By its nature,
glassy water indicates no wind, so there are no con-
cerns about which direction to land, no crosswind to
consider, no weathervaning, and obviously no rough
water. Unfortunately, both the visual and the physical
characteristics of glassy water hold potential hazards
for complacent pilots. Consequently, this surface con-
dition is frequently more dangerous than it appears for
a landing seaplane.
The visual aspects of glassy water make it difficult to
judge the seaplane’s height above the water. The lack
of surface features can make accurate depth percep-
tion very difficult, even for experienced seaplane
pilots. Without adequate knowledge of the seaplane’s
Centrifugal
Force
Skidding
Force
Figure 6-5. A downwind arc is one way to compensate for a
crosswind.
Ch 06.qxd 8/25/04 10:45 AM Page 6-5
height above the surface, the pilot may flare too high or
too low. Either case can lead to an upset. If the seaplane
flares too high and stalls, it will pitch down, very likely
hitting the water with the bows of the floats and flip-
ping over. If the pilot flares too late or not at all, the
seaplane may fly into the water at relatively high speed,
landing on the float bows, driving them underwater and
flipping the seaplane. [Figure 6-6]
Besides the lack of surface features, the smooth,
reflecting surface can lead to confusing illusions as
clouds or shore features are reproduced in stunning
detail and full color. When the water is crystal clear and
glassy, the surface itself is invisible, and pilots may
inadvertently judge height by using the bottom of the
lake as a reference, rather than the water surface.
The lack of surface texture also presents a physical
characteristic that adds slightly to the risk of glassy
water landings. A nice smooth touchdown can result in
faster deceleration than expected, for the same reason
that the floats seem to stick to the surface during glassy
water takeoffs: there is less turbulence and fewer air
bubbles between the float bottoms and the water, which
effectively increases the wetted surface area of the
floats and causes higher drag forces. Naturally, this
sudden extra drag at touchdown tends to pull the nose
down, but if the pilot is expecting it and maintains the
planing attitude with appropriate back pressure, the
tendency is easily controlled and presents no problem.
There are some simple ways to overcome the visual
illusions and increase safety during glassy water land-
ings. Perhaps the simplest is to land near the shoreline,
using the features along the shore to gauge altitude. Be
certain that the water is sufficiently deep and free of
obstructions by performing a careful inspection from a
safe altitude. Another technique is to make the final
approach over land, crossing the shoreline at the lowest
possible safe altitude so that a reliable height reference
is maintained to within a few feet of the water surface.
When adequate visual references are not available,
make glassy water landings by establishing a stable
descent in the landing attitude at a rate that will pro-
vide a positive, but not excessive, contact with the
water. Recognize the need for this type of landing in
ample time to set up the proper final approach. Always
perform glassy water landings with power. Perform a
normal approach, but prepare as though intending to
land at an altitude well above the surface. For exam-
ple, in a situation where a current altimeter setting is
not available and there are few visual cues, this alti-
tude might be 200 feet above the surface. Landing
preparation includes completion of the landing check-
list and extension of flaps as recommended by the
manufacturer. The objective is to have the seaplane
ready to contact the water soon after it reaches the tar-
get altitude, so at approximately 200 feet above the
surface, raise the nose to the attitude normally used for
touchdown, and adjust the power to provide a constant
descent rate of no more than 150 feet per minute
(f.p.m.) at an airspeed approximately 10 knots above
stall speed. Maintain this attitude, airspeed, and rate of
descent until the seaplane contacts the water. Once the
landing attitude and power setting are established, the
airspeed and descent rate should remain the same
without further adjustment, and the pilot should
closely monitor the instruments to maintain this stable
glide. Power should only be changed if the airspeed or
rate of descent deviate from the desired values. Do not
flare, but let the seaplane fly onto the water in the land-
ing attitude. [Figure 6-7]
Upon touchdown, apply gentle back pressure to the
elevator control to maintain the same pitch attitude.
Close the throttle only after the seaplane is firmly on
the water. Three cues provide verification through
three different senses—vision, hearing, and body sen-
sation. The pilot sees a slight nose-down pitch at
touchdown and perhaps spray thrown to the sides by
the floats, hears the sound of the water against the
floats, and feels the deceleration force. Accidents have
resulted from cutting the power suddenly after the ini-
tial touchdown. To the pilot’s surprise, a skip had taken
place and as the throttle closed, the seaplane was 10 to
15 feet in the air and not on the water, resulting in a
stall and substantial damage. Be sure all of the cues
Flare Too Early Stall
Failure to Flare
Figure 6-6. The consequences of misjudging altitude over glassy water can be catastrophic.