Part 3: Chapter 10 —… | FAA Weight-Shift…

There are many different types of clearing procedures. Most

are centered around the use of clearing turns. Some pilot

training programs have hard-and-fast rules, such as requiring

two 90° turns in opposite directions before executing any

training maneuver. Other types of clearing procedures may

be developed by individual ﬂ ight instructors. Whatever

the preferred method, the ﬂ ight instructor should teach the

beginning student an effective clearing procedure and require

its use. The student pilot should execute the appropriate

clearing procedure before all turns and before executing any

training maneuver. Proper clearing procedures, combined

with proper visual scanning techniques, are the most effective

strategy for collision avoidance.

Runway Incursion Avoidance

A runway incursion is any occurrence at an airport involving

an aircraft, vehicle, person, or object on the ground that

creates a collision hazard or results in a loss of separation

with an aircraft taking off, landing, or intending to land. The

three major areas contributing to runway incursions are:

• Communications,

• Airport knowledge, and

• Flight deck procedures for maintaining orientation.

Taxi operations require constant vigilance by the pilot and can

be assisted by the passenger. This is especially true during

ﬂ ight training operations. Both the student pilot and the ﬂ ight

instructor need to be continually aware of the movement and

location of other aircraft and ground vehicles on the airport

movement area. Many ﬂ ight training activities are conducted

at nontowered airports. The absence of an operating airport

control tower creates a need for increased vigilance on the

part of pilots operating at those airports.

Planning, clear communications, and enhanced situational

awareness during airport surface operations will reduce the

potential for surface incidents. Safe aircraft operations can be

accomplished and incidents eliminated if the pilot is properly

trained from the outset and, throughout his or her ﬂ ying

career, accomplishes standard taxi operating procedures and

practices. This requires the development of the formalized

teaching of safe operating practices during taxi operations.

Positive Transfer of Controls

During flight training, there must always be a clear

understanding between the student and ﬂ ight instructor of

who has control of the aircraft. Prior to any dual training

ﬂ ight, the instructor should conduct a brieﬁ ng that includes

the procedure for the exchange of flight controls. The

following three-step process for the exchange of flight

controls is highly recommended.

When a ﬂ ight instructor wishes the student to take control

of the aircraft, he or she should say to the student, “You

have the ﬂ ight controls.” The student should acknowledge

immediately by saying, “I have the ﬂ ight controls.” The ﬂ ight

instructor conﬁ rms by again saying, “You have the ﬂ ight

controls.” Part of the procedure should be a visual check to

ensure that the other person actually has the ﬂ ight controls.

When returning the controls to the ﬂ ight instructor, the student

should follow the same procedure the instructor used when

giving control to the student. The student should stay on the

controls until the instructor says: “I have the ﬂ ight controls.”

There should never be any doubt regarding who is ﬂ ying the

WSC aircraft. Numerous accidents have occurred due to a

lack of communication or misunderstanding regarding who

actually had control of the aircraft, particularly between

student and ﬂ ight instructor. Establishing the positive transfer

of controls procedure during initial training will ensure the

formation of a very beneﬁ cial habit pattern.

Aeronautical Decision-Making (ADM)

A PIC’s attitude or mindset must always be alert in order to

maintain the safety of the aircraft, passengers, and the general

public on the ground. To accomplish sound aeronautical

decision-making (ADM), a pilot must be aware of his or

her limitations and well-being (physical and psychological

health), even before beginning the ﬁ rst preﬂ ight routine.

While technology is constantly improving equipment and

strengthening materials, safe flight comes down to the

decisions made by the human pilot prior to and during

ﬂ ight.

The well-being of the pilot is the starting point for the

decision-making process that occurs while in control of the

aircraft. Just as physical fatigue and illness directly affects

a pilot’s judgment, so too will attitude management, stress

management, risk management, personality tendencies, and

situational awareness. Hence, it is the awareness of human

factors and the knowledge of the related corrective action that

not only improves the safety of operating a WSC aircraft, but

also enhances the joy of ﬂ ying. [Figure 1-18]

A good starting point is the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical

Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25), which explains the decision-

making process, resource management, situational awareness,

pilot error, stress management, risk management techniques,

and hazardous attitude antidotes. After reading and

understanding those subjects, it should be understood that

the scenarios presented are generally for more complex

airplanes, but the thought process and results are the same

for all aircraft. The information is not duplicated but the

Hearing

Visual

Experience by Touch, Smell

Pilot analysis of

weather indicates it

might be turbulent.

High

Low

Reinforcement

Pilot is warned of turbulence and sees

Avoiding Pilot Errors

Overall, WSC aircraft are flown for fun and not for

transportation. Generally, it is determined that the pilot

will not ﬂ y in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)

without the assistance and training of the attitude indicator.

Pilots must make the decision to stay out of IMC conditions

and turn back immediately if the situation occurs. This is

what most pilots should do, but the information provided

by the attitude indicator allows pilots to start the “error

chain” that can lead to catastrophic consequences. The best

immediate decision is always to turn back and not go into

IMC conditions in a WSC aircraft.

With an open ﬂ ight deck, the problem of items getting loose

and hitting the propeller requires extra caution. Being in a

hurry, not making sure everything is secured, and forgetting

to brief the passenger can trigger one event that leads to

another. Exercising caution in the open ﬂ ight deck is an

important step for WSC pilots.

If ﬂ ying a WSC aircraft in turbulence, the pilot must have

both hands on the bar to maintain control of the aircraft.

Therefore, changing radio frequencies, measuring courses

on the map, or operating any of the ﬂ ight deck controls

becomes difﬁ cult and secondary to maintaining control

of the aircraft. This is different from ﬂ ying an airplane or

a powered parachute, which requires less physical effort

to maintain control of the aircraft and at least one hand is

available to tend to ﬂ ight deck duties. It must be noted that the

Figure 1-19. Kneeboards help secure items in the flight deck.

Figure 1-20. Example of a checklist.

ﬁ rst priority always is maintaining control of the aircraft, and

all other duties are secondary. Generally, preﬂ ight planning

and good pilot judgment would prevent a situation of ﬂ ying

in moderate to extreme turbulence. However, when you do

ﬁ nd yourself ﬂ ying in this situation, ﬂ y the aircraft ﬁ rst, and

attend to ﬂ ight deck duties second.

Scenario-Based Training

A good instructor immediately begins teaching ADM

when the student has the ability to control the WSC aircraft

conﬁ dently during the most basic maneuvers. The instructor

incorporates “scenario-based training” in which the instructor

provides pilot, aircraft, environment, and operational risk

elements to train the student to utilize ADM in making

the best decision for a given set of circumstances. During

a proﬁ ciency or practical test, the instructor or examiner

evaluates the applicant’s ability to use satisfactory ADM

practices as the pilot determines risks and coordinates safe

procedures.

Resource Management

Resource management is similar to that described in the

Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-

25) except the passenger cannot help in the same ways as in

an airplane. The passenger cannot hold or help read the map

unless the pilot has provided a knee board or other means

for the passenger to assist. [Figure 1-19]

In addition to having the passenger scan the skies for other

aircraft, the passenger can maintain control of the aircraft for

short periods as the WSC is relatively easy to ﬂ y straight.

This permits the pilot to perform unanticipated flight

deck functions during ﬂ ight. Overall, preﬂ ight planning

and passenger brieﬁ ngs are additional tasks of resource

management for the WSC aircraft.

Use of Checklists

Checklists have been the foundation of pilot standardization

and ﬂ ight deck safety for many years and the ﬁ rst defense

against the error chain that leads to accidents. [Figure 1-20] The

checklist is an aid to the fallible human memory and helps

to ensure that critical safety items are not overlooked or

forgotten. However, checklists are of no value if the pilot is not

committed to their use. Without discipline and dedication in

using a checklist, the odds favor the possibility of an error.

The importance of consistent use of checklists cannot be

overstated in pilot training. A major objective in primary ﬂ ight

training is to establish habitual patterns that will serve pilots

well throughout their ﬂ ying careers. The ﬂ ight instructor must

promote a positive attitude toward the use of checklists, and

the student pilot must recognize their importance.

Because of the evolution of WSC aircraft and their simplicity,

it could be thought that written checklists are not required.

Nothing is further from the truth. Following good written

checklists provides signiﬁ cant safety for human factors,

which is the greatest cause of accidents in aviation.

Five important written checklists must be used before ﬂ ight.

These speciﬁ c checklists are emphasized because of their

importance in avoiding pilot errors that can occur before or

during ﬂ ight:

1. Preﬂ ight preparation

2. Routine preﬂ ight inspection

3. Passenger preﬂ ight brief

4. Engine start/taxi

5. Preﬂ ight check

Wire running to WSC

12-volt electrical system

Electric gloves

Figure 1-21. Motorcycle gloves and socks hooked to the 12-volt WSC electrical system keep the pilot and

passenger warm.

Because checklists may not be practical in the open ﬂ ight

deck during ﬂ ight, and depending on the manufacturer and

make/model of the WSC aircraft, checklists used for climb,

en route, and landing may be placards in the ﬂ ight deck that

can be read by the pilot in ﬂ ight or used on kneeboards as

appropriate. Checklists must be secured to prevent their ﬂ ying

through the propeller during taxi or ﬂ ight.

An additional written checklist that can be used on the ground

after landing is taxi, engine shutdown, postﬂ ight inspection,

and securing aircraft.

Medical Factors

A number of physiological effects can be linked to ﬂ ying.

Some are minor, while others are important enough to

require special attention to ensure safety of ﬂ ight. In some

cases, physiological factors can lead to inﬂ ight emergencies.

Some important medical factors that a WSC pilot should

be aware of include hypoxia, hyperventilation, middle ear

and sinus problems, spatial disorientation, motion sickness,

carbon monoxide poisoning, stress and fatigue, dehydration,

heatstroke, and hypothermia. Other factors include the effects

of alcohol and drugs, and excess nitrogen in the blood after

scuba diving.

A prerequisite to this chapter is the aeromedical factors

portion of the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge

(FAA-H-8083-25)

which provides detailed

information a pilot must

consider in all flight

operations. All of the

aeromedical factors

described in that book

are applicable to WSC.

However, the following

are additional topics

applicable to WSC not

speciﬁ cally covered.

Fatigue

Because the WSC

aircraft moves weight

through pilot input, there

is significant arm and

upper body strength

required to ﬂ y a WSC

aircraft, especially in

turbulence. If flying

a cross-country flight

midday in moderate

turbulence for more than

an hour, a pilot would

require signiﬁ cant strength and endurance. This signiﬁ cantly

adds to fatigue, as discussed in the Pilot’s Handbook of

Aeronautical Knowledge. This is accomplished all the time by

experienced pilots, but it is a workout. If this type of workout

is combined with dehydration in a desert environment, a

greater than anticipated headwind, or ﬂ ying an unfamiliar

cross-country route, the added aeromedical risk factors could

lead to a fatal error chain.

Hypothermia

Hypothermia is an important factor and knowledge

requirement in the WSC Practical Test Standards. Cold

temperatures for long periods reduce the inner body core

temperature when the heat produced by the body is less than

the amount of heat being lost to the body’s surroundings.

This loss of heat is highly accelerated in WSC open ﬂ ight

decks with wind chill. The ﬁ rst symptom of ﬂ ying a WSC

aircraft is cold hands because of exposure to wind chill.

Symptoms continue with other parts of the body becoming

cold until the entire body feels cold. Hypothermia results in

weakness, shivering, lack of physical control, and slurred

speech followed by unconsciousness and death. Dressing

warm and/or aircraft heating systems to help the pilot remain

warm during flight prevents hypothermia. Motorcycle

gloves and socks that run off the aircraft electric system

are commonly used and can keep a pilot from getting cold.

[Figure 1-21] Also, carrying an appropriate survival kit

Flight Fitness | The “I’m Safe” Checklist

Illness Do I have an illness or any symptoms of

an illness?

Medication Have I been taking prescription or

over-the-counter drugs?

Stress Am I under psychological pressure from my

job? Worried about financial matters, health

problems, or family discord?

Alcohol Have I been drinking within eight hours?

Within 24 hours?

Fatigue Am I tired and not adequately rested?

Eating Am I adequately nourished?

Figure 1-22. Prior to flight, a pilot should assess overall fitness.

prepares a pilot against hypothermia if forced down in cold

temperatures.

Medical Summary

Before approaching the WSC aircraft, a pilot must take

a moment to reﬂ ect upon current medical, physical, and

psychological conditions. During this time, a pilot should

evaluate his or her ability to conduct the ﬂ ight considering

self, passenger, and people and property on the ground.

Using the “I’M SAFE” checklist is a smart way to start a

preﬂ ight before getting to the WSC aircraft. Prior to ﬂ ight,

assess overall ﬁ tness as well as the aircraft’s airworthiness.

[Figure 1-22]

Chapter Summary

This chapter provides basic knowledge that is essential for

WSC pilots and should serve as a starting point for them.

However, there are many other handbooks, advisories, and

regulations with which all WSC pilots should become familiar

as their maturity within the aeronautical realm increases

and/or the need for greater depth of understanding becomes

necessary due to location, temperature, altitude, etc.

Chapter 10 — Weight and Balance — Part 3