Part 2: Chapter 12 —… | FAA Weight-Shift…

Distractions and problems can result from a flickering

light in the ﬂ ight deck, such as anticollision lights, strobe

lights, or other aircraft lights which can cause flicker

vertigo. If continuous, the possible physical reactions can

be nausea, dizziness, grogginess, confusion, headaches, or

unconsciousness. The pilot should try to eliminate any light

source causing blinking or ﬂ ickering problems in the ﬂ ight

deck.

A black-hole approach occurs when the landing is made

from over water or unlighted terrain on which runway lights

are the only sources of light. Without peripheral visual cues

to help, pilots have trouble orienting themselves relative to

Earth. The runway can seem out of position (downsloping or

upsloping) and, in the worst case, result in landing short of the

runway. If an electronic glideslope or visual approach slope

indicator (VASI) is available, it should be used. If navigation

aids (NAVAIDs) are unavailable, careful attention should be

given to using the ﬂ ight instruments to assist in maintaining

orientation and a normal approach. If at any time the pilot is

unsure of his or her position or attitude, a go-around should

be executed.

Bright runway and approach lighting systems, especially

where few lights illuminate the surrounding terrain, may

create the illusion of less distance to the runway. In this

situation, the tendency is to ﬂ y a higher approach. Also,

when ﬂ ying over terrain with only a few lights, it makes the

runway recede or appear farther away. With this situation,

the tendency is common to ﬂ y a lower-than-normal approach.

If the runway has a city in the distance on higher terrain, the

tendency is to ﬂ y a lower-than-normal approach. A good

review of the airﬁ eld layout and boundaries before initiating

any approach helps the pilot maintain a safe approach

angle.

Illusions created by runway lights result in a variety

of problems. Bright lights or bold colors advance the

runway, making it appear closer. Night landings are further

complicated by the difﬁ culty of judging distance and the

possibility of confusing approach and runway lights. For

example, when a double row of approach lights joins the

boundary lights of the runway, there can be confusion where

the approach lights terminate and runway lights begin. Under

certain conditions, approach lights can make the aircraft seem

higher in a turn to ﬁ nal than when its wings are level.

Preparation and Preﬂ ight

Night ﬂ ying requires that pilots be aware of and operate within

their abilities and limitations. Although careful planning of

any ﬂ ight is essential, night ﬂ ying demands more attention

to the details of preﬂ ight preparation and planning.

Preparation for a night ﬂ ight should include a thorough

review of the available weather reports and forecasts with

particular attention given to temperature-dew point spread.

A narrow temperature-dew point spread may indicate the

possibility of ground fog. Emphasis should also be placed on

wind direction and speed, since wind effects on the aircraft

cannot be as easily detected at night as during the day.

On night cross-country ﬂ ights, appropriate aeronautical

charts should be selected, including the appropriate adjacent

charts. Course lines should be drawn in black to be more

distinguishable.

Prominently lighted checkpoints along the prepared course

should be noted. Rotating beacons at airports, lighted

obstructions, lights of cities or towns, and lights from major

highway trafﬁ c all provide excellent visual checkpoints. The

use of a GPS with a lighted screen adds signiﬁ cantly to the

safety and efﬁ ciency of night ﬂ ying.

All personal equipment should be checked prior to ﬂ ight to

ensure proper functioning. It is very disconcerting to ﬁ nd at

the time of need that a ﬂ ashlight does not work.

All aircraft lights should be turned on momentarily and

checked for operation. Position lights can be checked for

loose connections by tapping the light ﬁ xture. If the lights

blink while being tapped, further investigation to determine

the cause should be made prior to ﬂ ight.

The parking ramp should be examined prior to entering the

aircraft. During the day, it is quite easy to see stepladders,

chuckholes, wheel chocks, and other obstructions, but at

night it is more difﬁ cult. A check of the area can prevent

taxiing mishaps.

Starting, Taxiing, and Runup

After the pilot is seated in the ﬂ ight deck and prior to starting

the engine, all items and materials to be used on the ﬂ ight

should be arranged in such a manner that they will be readily

available and convenient to use.

Extra caution should be taken at night to assure the propeller

area is clear. Turning the rotating beacon on or ﬂ ashing the

aircraft position lights serves to alert persons nearby to remain

clear of the propeller. To avoid excessive drain of electrical

current from the battery, it is recommended that unnecessary

electrical equipment be turned off until after the engine has

been started.

Figure 12-8. Reviewing before-takeoff checklist, which is included

for the flight with the sectional charts on the kneeboard.

After starting and before taxiing, the taxi or landing light

should be turned on. Continuous use of the landing light with

revolutions per minute (rpm) power settings normally used

for taxiing may place an excessive drain on the aircraft’s

electrical system. Also, overheating of the landing light could

become a problem because of inadequate airﬂ ow to carry the

heat away. Landing lights should be used as necessary while

taxiing. When using landing lights, consideration should be

given to not blinding other pilots. Taxi slowly, particularly

in congested areas. If taxi lines are painted on the ramp or

taxiway, these lines should be followed to ensure a proper

path along the route.

The before takeoff and runup should be performed using the

checklist. During the day, forward movement of the aircraft

can be detected easily. At night, the aircraft could creep

forward without being noticed unless the pilot is alert for this

possibility. Hold or lock the brakes during the runup and be

alert for any forward movement. [Figure 12-8]

Takeoff and Climb

Night ﬂ ying is very different from day ﬂ ying and demands

more attention of the pilot. The most noticeable difference

is the limited availability of outside visual references.

Therefore, ﬂ ight instruments should be used as a reference

in controlling the aircraft. This is particularly true on night

takeoffs and climbs. The ﬂ ight deck lights should be adjusted

to a minimum brightness that allows the pilot to read the

instruments and switches but not hinder the pilot’s outside

vision. This also eliminates light reﬂ ections on the windshield

and instruments.

After ensuring that the ﬁ nal approach and runway are clear

of other air trafﬁ c, or when cleared for takeoff by the tower,

the landing lights and taxi lights should be turned on and the

WSC aircraft lined up with the centerline of the runway. If

the runway does not have centerline lighting, use the painted

centerline and the runway edge lights. After the aircraft

is aligned, the heading indicator should be noted or set to

correspond to the known runway direction. The magnetic

compass should read the exact direction of the runway. The

GPS does not provide meaningful information while stopped

or turning because it measures ground track and needs to be

moving to register enough points to provide accurate data.

To begin the takeoff, the brakes should be released and the

throttle smoothly advanced to maximum allowable power.

As the aircraft accelerates, it should be kept moving straight

ahead between and parallel to the runway-edge lights.

The procedure for night takeoffs is the same as for normal

daytime takeoffs except that many of the runway visual cues

are not available. Therefore, the airspeed ﬂ ight instrument

can be checked during the takeoff roll to ensure the proper

airspeed in being obtained. As the airspeed reaches the

normal lift-off speed, the pitch attitude should be adjusted

to that which establishes a normal climb. This should be

accomplished by using the normal control bar position for the

desired climb speed. After liftoff, instruments can be checked

for proper heading, and airspeed. [Figures 12-9 and 12-10]

The darkness of night often makes it difﬁ cult to note whether

the airborne aircraft is getting closer to or farther from

the surface. To ensure the aircraft continues in a positive

climb, be sure a climb is indicated on the attitude indicator

(if equipped), vertical speed indicator (VSI), and altimeter.

It is also important to ensure the airspeed is at best climb

speed.

Necessary pitch and bank adjustments should be made by

referencing the attitude, heading, or ground track indicators.

Heading indicators include both the aircraft heading indicators

and the magnetic compass. Once the aircraft starts moving

and establishing a ground track straight down the runway, the

GPS has data points to establish a ground track and becomes

useful once in ﬂ ight. It is recommended that turns not be

made until reaching a safe maneuvering altitude.

Although the use of the landing lights provides help during

the takeoff, they become ineffective soon after liftoff when

30.029.929.8

Figure 12-9. Classic instrument gauges for WSC aircraft.

Figure 12-10. Digital panel instrument gauges for WSC aircraft.

Figure 12-11. A properly lit instrument panel and city lights provide

recommended conditions for night flying.

the aircraft has climbed to an altitude at which the light

beam no longer extends to the surface. The light can cause

distortion when it is reﬂ ected by haze, smoke, or fog that

might exist in the climb. Therefore, when the landing light

is used for the takeoff, it may be turned off after the climb is

well established provided other trafﬁ c in the area does not

require its use for collision avoidance.

A properly lit instrument panel and visual reference to the

ground with city lights are recommended for night ﬂ ying.

[Figure 12-11]

Orientation and Navigation

At night, it is usually difﬁ cult to see clouds and restrictions to

visibility, particularly on dark nights or under overcast. The

pilot ﬂ ying under VFR must exercise caution to

avoid ﬂ ying into clouds or a layer of fog. Usually,

the first indication of flying into restricted

visibility conditions is the gradual disappearance

of lights on the ground. If the lights begin to take

on an appearance of being surrounded by a halo

or glow, the pilot should use caution in attempting

further ﬂ ight in that same direction. Such a halo

or glow around lights on the ground is indicative

of ground fog. Remember that if a descent to land

must be made through fog, smoke, or haze, the

horizontal visibility is considerably less. Under

no circumstances should a night ﬂ ight be made

during poor or marginal weather conditions.

The pilot should practice and acquire competency

in straight-and-level ﬂ ight, climbs and descents,

level turns, climbing and descending turns, and

steep turns. The pilot should also practice these

maneuvers with all the ﬂ ight deck lights turned

off. This blackout training is necessary if the

pilot experiences an electrical or instrument light

failure. Training should also include using the

navigation equipment and local NAVAIDs.

In spite of fewer references or checkpoints, night

cross-country ﬂ ights do not present particular

problems if preplanning is adequate, and the pilot

continues to monitor position, time estimates, and

fuel consumption. The GPS is the most valuable

instrument for day and night cross-country ﬂ ying.

For night cross-country ﬂ ying, spare batteries or

a GPS hooked to the aircraft electric system with

a battery backup is recommended. NAVAIDs,

Figure 12-12. Use light patterns for orientation.

if available, should also be used to assist in monitoring en

route progress.

Crossing large bodies of water at night in single-engine

aircraft is hazardous and not recommended by day or night.

This is from the standpoint of landing (ditching) in the water,

but especially at night because with little or no lighting the

horizon blends with the water making depth perception and

orientation difﬁ cult. During poor visibility conditions over

water, the horizon becomes obscure and may result in a loss

of orientation. Even on clear nights, the stars may be reﬂ ected

on the water surface which could appear as a continuous array

of lights making the horizon difﬁ cult to identify.

Lighted runways, buildings, or other objects may cause

illusions when seen from different altitudes. At an altitude

of 2,000 feet, a group of lights on an object may be seen

individually; while at 5,000 feet or higher, the same lights

could appear to be one solid light mass. These illusions

may become quite acute with altitude changes and, if not

overcome, could present problems in respect to approaches

to lighted runways.

Approaches and Landings

When approaching the airport to enter the trafﬁ c pattern and

land, it is important that the runway lights and other airport

lighting be identiﬁ ed as early as possible. If the airport layout

is unfamiliar to the pilot, sighting of the runway may be

difﬁ cult until very close-in due to the maze of lights observed

in the area. [Figure 12-12] The pilot should ﬂ y toward the

rotating beacon until the lights outlining the runway are

distinguishable. To ﬂ y a trafﬁ c pattern of proper size and

direction, the runway threshold and runway-edge lights must

be positively identiﬁ ed. Once the airport lights are seen, these

lights should be kept in sight throughout the approach.

Distance may be deceptive at night due to limited lighting

conditions. A lack of intervening references on the ground

and the inability of the pilot to compare the size and location

of different ground objects cause this. This also applies to

the estimation of altitude and speed. Consequently, more

dependence must be placed on ﬂ ight instruments, particularly

the altimeter and the airspeed indicator.

When entering the trafﬁ c pattern, allow for plenty of time to

complete the before landing checklist. If the heading indicator

contains a heading bug, setting it to the runway heading is

an excellent reference for the pattern legs.

Every effort should be made to maintain the recommended

airspeeds and execute the approach and landing in the

same manner as during the day. A low, shallow approach

is deﬁ nitely inappropriate during a night operation. The

altimeter and VSI should be constantly cross-checked against

the aircraft’s position along the base leg and ﬁ nal approach.

A visual approach slope indicator (VASI) is an indispensable

aid in alerting a pilot of too low of a glidepath. The typical

VASI is set to 3° for the recommended aircraft approach. This

19 to 1 glide ratio is too low for a WSC aircraft. A normal

glide ratio for WSC aircraft is 5 to 1, which is 11°, much

higher than the normal 3° to 4° used by aircraft. Therefore,

for WSC VASI ﬁ nal approaches both white lights should

be visible. If a pilot sees red over white, or especially both

reds, the approach is too low and altitude should be gained,

or at least maintained to get above the normal VASI 3° to

4° approach at night. This steeper approach allows the WSC

aircraft to glide to the runway and land safely in the event of

engine failure. [Figure 12-13]

After turning onto the ﬁ nal approach and aligning the aircraft

midway between the two rows of runway-edge lights, the

pilot should note and correct for any wind drift. Throughout

the final approach, pitch and power should be used to

maintain a stabilized approach. Usually, halfway through

the ﬁ nal approach, the landing light should be turned on.

Earlier use of the landing light may be necessary because of

“Operation Lights On” or for local trafﬁ c considerations. The

landing light is sometimes ineffective since the light beam

usually does not reach the ground from higher altitudes.

The light may even be reﬂ ected back into the pilot’s eyes

by any existing haze, smoke, or fog. This disadvantage is

overshadowed by the safety considerations provided by using

the “Operation Lights On” procedure around other trafﬁ c.

Both light bars are white—above the

normal aircraft glidepath, which is

recomended for WSC aircraft in

case of engine failure.

Use stabilized approach.

Above Aircraft Glidepath

Red over red—below the normal

aircraft glidepath, dangerously low

and must climb

Below Aircraft Glidepath

Far bar is red and near bar

is white—on the normal aircraft

glidepath, which is lower than the

WSC aircraft power-off glidepath

On Aircraft Glidepath

Figure 12-13. VASI.

The approach and landings should be made in the same

manner as in day landings as discussed in Chapter 11,

Approaches and Landings. At night, the judgment of height,

speed, and sink rate is impaired by the scarcity of observable

objects in the landing area. The inexperienced pilot may have

a tendency to round out too high until attaining familiarity

with the proper height for the correct roundout. To aid

in night landings, approach with power on to reduce the

descent rate providing more time for the pilot to see the

runway and start the roundout once the runway is visible.

To aid in determining the proper roundout point, continue

a constant approach descent until the landing lights reﬂ ect

on the runway and tire marks on the runway can be clearly

seen. At this point, the roundout should be started smoothly

and the throttle gradually reduced to idle as the aircraft is

touching down. [Figure 12-14] During landings without the

use of landing lights, the roundout may be started when the

runway lights at the far end of the runway ﬁ rst appear to be

rising higher than the nose of the aircraft. This demands a

smooth and very timely roundout, and requires that the pilot

feel for the runway surface using power and pitch changes,

as necessary, for the aircraft to settle slowly to the runway.

Blackout landings should always be included in night pilot

training as an emergency procedure.

Night Emergencies

Perhaps the pilot’s greatest concern about ﬂ ying a single-

engine aircraft at night is the possibility of a complete

engine failure and the subsequent emergency landing. This

is a legitimate concern, even though continuing ﬂ ight into

adverse weather and poor pilot judgment account for most

serious accidents.

If the engine fails at night, several important procedures and

considerations to keep in mind are:

• Maintain positive control of the aircraft and establish

the best glide conﬁ guration and airspeed. Turn the

aircraft toward an airport or away from congested

areas.

• Check to determine the cause of the engine malfunction,

such as the position of fuel shutoff, magneto switch, or

primer. If possible, the cause of the malfunction should

be corrected immediately and the engine restarted.

• Announce the emergency situation to Air Trafﬁ c

Control (ATC) or UNICOM. If already in radio

contact with a facility, do not change frequencies

unless instructed to change.

Figure 12-14. Roundout when tire marks are visible.

• Consider an emergency landing area close to public

access if possible. This may facilitate rescue or help,

if needed.

• Maintain orientation with the wind to avoid a

downwind landing.

• Complete the before landing checklist, and check the

landing lights for operation at altitude and turn on in

sufﬁ cient time to illuminate the terrain or obstacles

along the ﬂ ightpath. The landing should be completed

in the normal landing attitude at the slowest possible

airspeed. If the landing lights are unusable and outside

visual references are not available, the aircraft should

be held minimum controlled airspeed until the ground

is contacted.

• After landing, turn off all switches and evacuate the

aircraft as quickly as possible.

Chapter Summary

Night ﬂ ight requires additional training, a private pilot

certiﬁ cate, and should be performed only when there is

adequate reference with the Earth, such as city lights or

a full moon. Night ﬂ ight should never be performed over

open water.

Night illusions require reference to flight instruments.

WSC pilots can determine pitch control by feel but cannot

determine roll and heading by feel so instrumentation such

as a heading indicator, magnetic compass, or GPS is needed

for directional reference.

Chapter 12 — Night Operations — Part 2