Part 2: Chapter 13 —… | FAA Weight-Shift…

45° Turn

225° Turn

Figure 13-6. Amount of turn required to land back on the takeoff

runway.

large bodies of water, ﬂ otation devices, extra water, and a

water puriﬁ er would be added to the basic survival gear. If

in desert conditions, bring a lot of water and hats for shade.

In situations of extreme temperature changes, add both sun

shading and layered clothing to the gear as appropriate.

Engine Failure After Takeoff

As discussed earlier in Chapter 7, Takeoff and Departure

Climbs, proper takeoff technique provides lower pitch

angles during the initial climb to provide the slowest possible

descent rate for an engine failure after takeoff. The pitch

angle and altitude available for engine failure at takeoff are

the controlling factors in the successful accomplishment of an

emergency landing. If an actual engine failure should occur

immediately after takeoff and before a safe maneuvering

altitude is attained, it is usually inadvisable to attempt to turn

back to the takeoff ﬁ eld. Instead, it is safer to establish the

proper glide attitude immediately, and select a ﬁ eld directly

ahead or slightly to either side of the takeoff path.

The decision to continue straight ahead is often difﬁ cult to

make unless the problems involved in attempting to turn back

are seriously considered. First, the takeoff was probably made

into the wind. To return to the takeoff ﬁ eld, a downwind turn

must be made. This increases the groundspeed and rushes

the pilot even more in the performance of procedures and

in planning the landing approach. Second, the aircraft loses

considerable altitude during the turn and might still be in a

bank when the ground is contacted, resulting in cartwheeling

(a catastrophe for the occupants, as well as the aircraft). After

turning downwind, the apparent increase in groundspeed

could mislead the pilot into a premature attempt to slow

the aircraft to a stall. Finally, it is more than one 180° turn.

For example, it is ﬁ rst a 225° turn in one direction, then

another 45° turn in the other direction, totaling 310° of turn.

[Figure 13-6]

On the other hand, continuing straight ahead or making a

slight turn allows the pilot more time to establish a safe

landing attitude. The landing can be made as slowly as

desired, but more importantly, the aircraft can be landed

while under control.

At airports where the runways are much longer than needed,

there is typically ample runway to make a straight ahead

landing. If a tight pattern is being used and the crosswind leg

is started at the end of the runway, turning back the additional

90° to the runway could be the best option, depending on the

suitability of landing areas straight ahead.

Depending on the specific design of the WSC aircraft

considering weight, wing, and carriage, this maneuver can

be performed with no reaction time and as low as 250 to

500 feet AGL. However, the pilot should determine the

minimum altitude that such a maneuver would require of a

particular aircraft. Experimentation at a much higher, safe

altitude, 700 feet AGL as an example, should give the pilot

an approximation of height lost in a descending 225° and

45° turn at idle power. Starting high above the ground at

low bank angles and monitoring the altitude loss while doing

the required turns to line back up on the runway provides a

good reference. Finding the best bank angle to perform the

required turns for this maneuver with minimum altitude loss

is key to optimizing this maneuver and developing a habit if

this maneuver is needed in a real emergency.

By adding a safety factor of about 30 percent to account for

reaction time and no thrust from the propeller, the pilot should

arrive at a practical decision height. The ability to make these

turns does not necessarily mean that the departure runway can

be reached in a power-off glide; this depends on the wind,

the distance traveled during the climb, the height reached,

and the glide distance of the aircraft without power.

This is a highly advanced maneuver with turns close to

the ground. This should be practiced well into the training

program with the instructor. For example, consider an aircraft

which has taken off and climbed to an altitude of 350 feet

AGL when the engine fails. After a typical 4-second reaction

time, the pilot pulls down the nose, maintains control of the

aircraft, and elects to turn back to the runway, losing 50 feet.

[Figure 13-6, A to B] The pilot performs the 225° turn and

loses 300 feet. [Figure 13-6, B to C] The pilot must glide back

to the runway, losing another 50 feet. [Figure 13-6, C to D]

The pilot must turn another 45° to head the aircraft toward

the runway, losing another 50 feet. [Figure 13-6, D to E] By

this time the total change in direction is 310°, the aircraft

will have descended 450 feet, placing it 100 feet below the

runway.

Emergency Descents

An emergency descent is a maneuver for descending as

rapidly as possible to a lower altitude or to the ground for an

emergency landing. The need for this maneuver may result

from an uncontrollable ﬁ re, avoidance of other aircraft,

weather, or any other situation demanding an immediate

and rapid descent. The objective is to descend the aircraft

as quickly as possible within the structural limitations of

the aircraft. Simulated emergency descents should be made

in a turn to check for other air trafﬁ c below and to look

around for a possible emergency landing area. A radio call

announcing descent intentions may be appropriate to alert

other aircraft in the area. When initiating the descent, a bank

angle of approximately 45° to 60° should be established to

maintain positive load factors (“G” forces) on the aircraft.

Generally, the steeper the bank angle is, the quicker the

descent is. But caution should be exercised with steep bank

angles for extended periods because the high G forces and

rotation can cause disorientation or motion sickness, which

might make matters worse. The manufacturer’s bank and

speed limitations should not be exceeded.

Emergency descent training should be performed as

recommended by the manufacturer, including the conﬁ guration

and airspeeds. The power should be reduced to idle. The

pilot should never allow the aircraft’s airspeed to surpass

the never-exceed speed (V NE) or go above the maximum

maneuvering (VA) speed, as applicable. In the case of an

engine ﬁ re, a high airspeed descent could extinguish the

ﬁ re. The descent should be made at the maximum allowable

bank angle and airspeed consistent with the procedure used.

This provides increased loads and drag and therefore the

loss of altitude as quickly as possible. The recovery from

an emergency descent should be initiated at an altitude high

enough to ensure a safe recovery back to level ﬂ ight or a

precautionary landing.

When the descent procedure is established and stabilized

during training and practice, the descent should be terminated.

For longer descents, alternating turn directions should be

used so the pilot does not become disorientated. Prolonged

practice of emergency descents should be avoided to prevent

excessive cooling of the engine cylinders. [Figure 13-7]

Inﬂ ight Fire

A ﬁ re in ﬂ ight demands immediate and decisive action.

The pilot must be familiar with the procedures to meet this

emergency as contained in the AFM/POH for the particular

aircraft. For the purposes of this handbook, inﬂ ight ﬁ res

are classiﬁ ed as: engine ﬁ res and electrical ﬁ res. If a ﬁ re

extinguisher is installed on the WSC aircraft, the passenger

should be briefed on its use and the pin should be connected

to the extinguisher by a lanyard so it cannot be dropped into

the propeller, creating a worse situation.

Engine Fire

An inﬂ ight engine ﬁ re is usually caused by a failure that

allows a ﬂ ammable substance such as fuel, oil, or hydraulic

ﬂ uid to come in contact with a hot surface. This may be

caused by a mechanical failure of the engine itself, an engine-

driven accessory, a defective induction or exhaust system, or

a broken line. Engine ﬁ res may also result from maintenance

errors, such as improperly installed/fastened lines and/or

ﬁ ttings, resulting in leaks.

Engine fires can be indicated by smoke and/or flames

coming from the engine area. They can also be indicated by

discoloration, bubbling, and/or melting of the engine cowling

Figure 13-7. Emergency descent showing alternate right and left hand steep descending turns.

Intended Landing Location

Right Hand Turn DescentLeft Hand Turn Descent

skin in cases where ﬂ ames and/or smoke are not visible to

the pilot. By the time a pilot becomes aware of an inﬂ ight

engine ﬁ re, it usually is well developed. Unless the aircraft

manufacturer directs otherwise in the AFM/POH, the ﬁ rst

step after discovering a ﬁ re is to shut off the fuel supply to

the engine (if so equipped). The ignition switch should be

left on in order to use up the fuel that remains in the fuel

lines and components between the fuel selector/shutoff valve

and the engine (if equipped with an electric fuel pump). This

procedure may starve the ﬁ re of fuel and cause the ﬁ re to die

naturally. If the ﬂ ames are snuffed out, no attempt should be

made to restart the engine.

If the engine ﬁ re is oil-fed, the smoke is thick and black,

as opposed to a fuel-fed ﬁ re which produces bright ﬂ ames

with less smoke.

Some light aircraft emergency checklists direct the pilot

to shut off the electrical master switch. However, the pilot

should consider that unless the ﬁ re is electrical in nature,

or a crash landing is imminent, deactivating the electrical

system prevents the use of radios for transmitting distress

messages and also causes air trafﬁ c control (ATC) to lose

transponder returns.

The pilot must be familiar with the aircraft’s emergency

descent procedures and remember that:

• An engine ﬁ re on a WSC aircraft means the ﬂ ames

are going to the rear of the aircraft where minimum

components are exposed. If the BPS is used, it would

change the direction of the ﬂ ames, possibly setting the

wing and/or fuselage on ﬁ re. The ﬂ ames could also

burn the parachute line, creating worse problems.

• The aircraft may be structurally damaged to the point

that its controllability could be lost at any moment.

• The aircraft may still be on ﬁ re and susceptible to

explosion.

• The aircraft is expendable—the only thing that matters

is the safety of those on board.

Electrical Fires

The initial indication of an electrical ﬁ re is usually a slight

amount of smoke and the distinct odor of burning insulation,

which may not be noticeable in a WSC open ﬂ ight deck.

Once an electrical ﬁ re is detected, the pilot should attempt

to identify the faulty circuit by checking circuit breakers,

instruments, avionics, and lights. If the faulty circuit cannot

be readily detected and isolated, and ﬂ ight conditions permit,

the battery master switch should be turned off to remove the

possible source of the ﬁ re. However, any materials that have

been ignited may continue to burn.

If electrical power is absolutely essential for the ﬂ ight,

an attempt may be made to identify and isolate the faulty

circuit by:

1. Turning the electrical master switch off.

2. Turning all individual electrical switches off.

3. Turning the master switch back on.

4. Selecting electrical switches that were on before the

ﬁ re indication one at a time, permitting a short time

lapse after each switch is turned on to check for signs

of odor, smoke, or sparks.

This procedure, however, has the effect of recreating the

original problem. The most prudent course of action is to

land as soon as possible.

The electrical ﬁ re could expand into a larger ﬁ re in the

carriage. A ﬁ re in the cabin presents the pilot with two

immediate demands: attacking the ﬁ re and getting the aircraft

safely on the ground as quickly as possible.

System Malfunctions

Electrical System

The loss of electrical power can deprive the pilot of

communications and navigation systems, but for day/VFR

conditions this is not a life threatening situation because most

engines ignition systems are on a separate electrical system

and not dependent on the battery for keeping the engine

running. However, losing communications does present some

challenges especially if operating at a controlled tower airport

in which procedures in the Airman’s Information Manual

(AIM) would be followed.

Pitot-Static System

The source of the pressure for operating the airspeed indicator,

the vertical speed indicator, and the altimeter is the pitot-static

system. Most WSC aircraft have pressure for the airspeed

indicator. If this becomes plugged, the airspeed indicator may

not read properly. If it is suspected that the airspeed indicator

is not reading properly, use the feel of the aircraft and the

trim position to determine speed. It is perfectly safe to ﬂ y a

WSC aircraft without an airspeed indicator if the pilot has

developed a feel of the aircraft since the trim position speed

is known and all other speeds can be determined based on the

feel of the air and the pressure on the control bar.

Altitude and vertical speed utilize static pressure. Because

there is typically no static line connecting these, they operate

independently. Therefore, if one fails or becomes plugged, the

other can act as a reference. For example, if the altimeter fails

for any reason, the vertical speed indicator would provide the

pilot with information on whether the aircraft was climbing,

level, or descending. The global positioning system (GPS)

(if equipped) could also provide altitude readings. If the

vertical speed indicator failed, the altimeter could provide

information on whether the aircraft was climbing, level, or

descending by looking at the altitude reading over time.

Landing Gear Malfunction

If there is any landing gear malfunction before or during

takeoff, the ﬂ ight or takeoff should be aborted and the

malfunction fixed before attempting another takeoff.

However, if a malfunction takes place during or after takeoff

in which the landing gear is not completely functional for

landing, the situation should be evaluated using aeronautical

decision-making (ADM) to make the best choice based on

the outcome of the situation.

If a tire falls off, a known ﬂ at of the tire is evident, or a

landing gear strut has shaken loose or become damaged,

precautionary measures must be taken to minimize the results

from landing with a defective landing gear.

Fly to a smooth runway where the WSC aircraft can skid

and not stop abruptly and tumble. Inform the local ATC,

UNICOM, or multicom frequency that there is a MAYDAY

in order to obtain immediate help for a crash landing.

There is no hurry to land, so use ADM to survey the situation

and make the best decision on where and how to land. Find

a location that has medical support, a smooth runway that

minimizes abrupt stops/tumbling, and land into the wind for

the best outcome. Attempt to make a normal approach into

the wind with the lowest possible speed to touchdown.

Inadvertant Propeller Strike

A propeller strike in a pusher WSC aircraft is more dangerous

than in any other aircraft. If an object or the propeller is ﬂ ung

up into the wing trailing edge, a structural failure could occur.

This situation should not be underestimated or ignored.

Procedures should be implemented and followed to avoid

propeller strikes from articles ﬂ ying out of the ﬂ ight deck.

Passengers sitting in the back are the greatest risk to propeller

strikes. A comprehensive preﬂ ight brief with proper ﬂ ight

deck management procedures should reveal any open pockets

or items that could dislodge and ﬂ y into the propeller. The

passenger in the back should be instructed not to take off

gloves, helmet, or glasses, or pull out a camera/mobile phone

without a lanyard. However, the passenger in the rear seat

cannot be monitored completely; it is possible that items

could ﬂ y out of the ﬂ ight deck and go through the propeller,

presenting a serious situation.

If a bird strike occurs or anything else hits the propeller,

reduce throttle immediately and evaluate the situation. The

severity of the vibration is the key element to determining

what to do. If the vibration is severe, shut off the engine and

make an emergency landing. Minor vibration can be tolerated,

but the risk of ﬂ ying with a damaged propeller, which could

dislodge and hit the sail, should be minimized. It is best to

shut down the engine and perform an emergency landing.

Stuck or Runaway Throttle

Throttles can stick above idle or unexpectedly increase, which

is called a runaway throttle. If on the ground, a runaway

throttle can be disastrous if not anticipated and mitigated. A

pilot (and instructor, if teaching) should always have access

to the ignition system in order to shut it off immediately in the

event of a throttle stuck above idle or a runaway throttle. A

runaway throttle can be caused by the pilot or student pushing

on the throttle pedal during taxi or startup, thinking it is the

right brake, as in an airplane. Setting the cruise throttle to

full open rather than full closed during startup also causes a

runaway throttle. On startup, the checklists must be followed,

including cruise throttle closed, foot off of foot throttle, brake

on, propeller cleared, etc. The PIC must have control of the

ignition to shut it off immediately during startup and taxi.

A runaway or stuck throttle during ﬂ ight can be handled by

climbing or ﬂ ying to a suitable location where the engine can

be shut off and a safe engine-off landing can be made.

Abnormal Engine Instrument Indications

The AFM/POH for the speciﬁ c aircraft contains information

that should be followed in the event of any abnormal

engine instrument indications. The table in Figure 13-8

offers generic information on some of the more commonly

experienced inﬂ ight abnormal engine instrument indications,

their possible causes, and corrective actions. It is important to

know that when an engine temperature probe fails, it usually

reads an unusually low value, zero, or does not register. This

should be taken into account when evaluating the situation

with engine instruments.

Figure 13-8. Common inflight abnormal engine instrument indications, causes, and corrective inflight actions.

MALFUNCTION PROBABLE CAUSE CORRECTIVE ACTION

For all engines

Slow loss of RPM during cruise ﬂ ight Carburetor or induction icing or air ﬁ lter

clogging

Apply carburetor heat. If dirty ﬁ lter is

suspected, divert to closest airport.

High cylinder head temperature (CHT) Insufﬁ cient airspeed for cooling (for ram air

cooling systems)

Reduce throttle. Increase airspeed.

Improper mixture adjustment Reduce throttle. Land as soon as possible.

Detonation or preignition Reduce power, increase cooling airﬂ ow.

Land as soon as practical.

Very high cylinder head temperatures

(CHT) and climbing

Cooling system failure Reduce throttle and land as soon as

practical. Shut off engine if readings climb

well above manufacturer’s limits to avoid

engine damage.

Low cylinder head temperature (CHT) Excessively rich mixture Reduce altitude.

Extended glides without clearing engine Clear engine long enough to keep

temperatures at minimum range.

High exhaust gas temperature (EGT) Lean mixture from improper jetting (can

result from jetting set for higher altitude

airport and ﬂ ying to lower altitude airport)

Reduce throttle. Land as soon as practical.

Lean mixture from additional air leaking

into induction system

Reduce throttle. Land as soon as possible.

Low exhaust gas temperature (EGT) Rich mixture from improper jetting Land as soon as practical.

Ammeter indicating discharge Magneto/generator failure Shed unnecessary electrical load. Land as

soon as practicable.

Rough running engine Improper mixture Land as soon as practical.

Carburetors out of adjustment or out of

synchronization (more evident at lower

rpm)

Idle at higher rpm. Land as soon as

practical.

Detonation or preignition Reduce power. Land as soon as practical.

Induction air leak Reduce power. Land as soon as practical.

Plugged fuel nozzle (for fuel injection) Reduce power. Land as soon as practical.

For four-stroke engines only

High oil temperature Oil congealed in cooler Reduce power. Land. Preheat engine.

Inadequate engine cooling Reduce power. Increase airspeed.

Detonation or preignition Observe cylinder head temperatures for

high reading. Descend to enrich mixture.

Forthcoming internal engine failure Land as soon as possible.

Defective thermostatic oil cooler control Land as soon as possible.

Low oil temperature Engine not warmed up to operating

temperature

Warm engine in prescribed manner.

High oil pressure Cold oil Warm engine in prescribed manner.

Possible internal plugging Reduce power. Land as soon as possible.

Low oil pressure Broken pressure relief valve Land as soon as possible.

Insufﬁ cient oil Land as soon as possible.

Burned out bearings Land as soon as possible.

Fluctuating oil pressure Low oil supply, loose oil lines, defective

pressure relief valve

Land as soon as possible.

Weather Related Emergencies

High Winds and Strong Turbulence

Preﬂ ight planning for intended airports and winds aloft over

the planned route and possible diversions can provide the

pilot a means of anticipating the winds that would exceed

aircraft or pilot capabilities. However, unanticipated high

winds can create an emergency for any aircraft. High

winds during cruise ﬂ ight are not a danger unless they

create extreme/severe turbulence, or the pilot is ﬂ ying with

questionable fuel reserves into a headwind that is stronger

than expected.

High Winds and Turbulence During Cruise Flight

If the winds at cruise altitude provide an unanticipated

slower groundspeed than planned, and the fuel reserves are

questionable, the ﬂ ight should be diverted to an alternate

airport so there is no chance of running out of fuel for the

intended ﬂ ight. Stronger headwinds and crosswinds slow the

groundspeed; tailwinds increase the groundspeed, resulting

in the ability to reach airports that are farther away. The GPS

is an accurate tool for measuring an aircraft’s groundspeed

during ﬂ ight.

In high winds, it is generally advisable to cruise with enough

ground clearance to assure that turbulence or sinking air does

not reduce altitude to an unsafe level. For example, maintain

at least 1,000 feet AGL when ﬂ ying in strong winds to be far

enough away from the ground to account for any turbulence,

wind shear, or downdrafts.

If a pilot is flying and sees high wind or a gust front

approaching with blowing dust or other indicators, a decision

must be made to land and secure the WSC aircraft before

the gust front hits, or turn and ﬂ y away from the area as fast

as possible. Never ﬂ y into a gust front. If it looks like strong

winds, it probably is and avoiding it is wise.

Strong turbulence can be created from high winds, wind

shear, rising/falling unstable air, or any combination of

these. As described in the basic ﬂ ight maneuvers chapter,

the pilot should keep the wings and pitch angle within the

manufacturer’s limitations through power and control bar

ﬂ ying techniques. Generally, if the turbulence continues to

increase, ﬂ y back to where the turbulence was less severe

instead of continuing where the turbulence might become

more severe. However, if the pitch becomes too high and

a whip stall occurs, as the nose drops into a dive, the pilot

should push the control bar full forward and apply full

power for the best chance of recovering to normal ﬂ ight and

not progressing into a tumble. The best whip stall/tumble

avoidance is to avoid severe turbulence and keeping the nose

within the manufacturer’s limitations.

High Winds and Turbulence During Takeoffs and

Landings

Takeoffs in high winds can simply be avoided by deciding not

to ﬂ y. However, if a pilot takes off and encounters high winds

or turbulence, high energy should be maintained throughout

the climb and departure.

If it is determined that the winds are too high for landing

at the intended location, divert to another location or

wait until the strong winds subside to land. This is where

the Automated Weather Observation Station (AWOS),

Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS), or radio

contact with other airports can assist the pilot in ﬁ nding an

airport with wind conditions within the pilot’s capabilities

and aircraft limitations.

If the headwind is within the pilot’s capabilities and aircraft

limitations but the crosswinds are above any limitations,

the pilot may need to land on a taxiway or sideways on a

runway that is wide enough, thus reducing the crosswind

component to acceptable levels. Strong winds produce strong

mechanical turbulence on the lee side of objects which should

be considered and avoided during any takeoff or landing in

strong winds.

High Winds During Taxi

For strong head winds during taxi, the nose must be lowered

to keep the WSC aircraft on the ground. Raising the nose

could allow the WSC aircraft to lift off. In any case, the nose

should be lowered completely to keep the WSC aircraft on

the ground. In strong tail winds, the nose must be raised so

that the wind does not get underneath the wing and lift it up

from the back and possibly tumble it forward. If the wing

starts to lift from the back, release the brake and push the

control bar forward to keep the wing from lifting and possibly

tumbling forward.

Strong crosswinds during taxi must be managed by keeping

the wing level or slightly down into the wind so the wind does

not catch it, lift up, and topple the WSC aircraft to the side,

causing signiﬁ cant damage. If the wind pushes down on the

wing, it could pin it to the ground which is the better option.

If the wing does become pinned from the wind, the pilot can

give some throttle and steer into the wind, rotating around

the tip and freeing the wing from the pinned state. This may

cause damage to the tip from scraping on the ground. If the

windward side gets too high and wind gets under the wing

lifting it from the side, all efforts should be made to hold it

down while the front wheel is turned downwind and the nose

raised to turn with the wind and avoid tumbling sideways.

Figure 13-9. Optional analog gauges for instrument flying: attitude indicator (top middle) and direction indicator (lower left) not typically

installed on WSC aircraft.

different for private pilots for whom there is not a requirement

for visual reference to the ground and the minimum ﬂ ight

visibility is only one statute mile (SM).

Accident statistics show that the average airplane pilot who

has not been trained in attitude instrument ﬂ ying, or one

whose instrument skills have eroded, will lose control of

the aircraft in about 10 minutes once forced to rely solely

on instrument reference. WSC pilots without any instrument

training attempting to use instruments in IMC conditions

would lose control much sooner. No WSC pilot should

attempt ﬂ ight into IMC conditions.

The purpose of this section is to provide guidance on practical

emergency measures to maintain aircraft control in the event

a VFR pilot encounters IMC conditions. The main goal is

not instrument ﬂ ying; it is to help the VFR pilot keep the

aircraft under adequate control until suitable visual references

are regained.

The ﬁ rst steps necessary for surviving an encounter with

IMC by a VFR pilot are:

• Recognition and acceptance of the gravity of the

situation and the need for immediate remedial

action.

Taxiing to a location that is on the leeward side of a structure

into the wind shadow provides the best option for exiting the

WSC aircraft in high winds. When available, seek assistance

to exit and/or secure the WSC. If no wind shadow is available,

the pilot can turn the WSC aircraft into crosswind and pin

the wing to exit.

Inadvertent Flight into Instrument Meteorological

Conditions (IMC)

Proper ﬂ ight planning using available weather resources

should allow a pilot to avoid ﬂ ying when the probability

of low visibility is high. It is expected that WSC pilots

exercise good judgment and not attempt to ﬂ y when the

visibility is questionable. However, this section is included

as background for this emergency procedure for inadvertent

ﬂ ight into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC), ﬂ ight

without visual reference to the horizon.

Although it is possible to get an attitude indicator installed

in a WSC aircraft, there are no training requirements for

ﬂ ying by instruments for sport or private pilot WSC ratings.

Samples of these instruments are shown in Figures 13-9

and 13-10.

Sport pilots are not allowed to ﬂ y unless there is visual

reference to the surface and three miles visibility. This is

Chapter 13 — Abnormal and Emergency Procedures — Part 2