Reference Line
Reference Line
Figure 9-8. Pilot’s view in starting semicircle turning left from
downwind to crosswind.
Figure 9-9. Student completing semicircle, preparing to level out
to cross perpendicular to the road.
[Figure 9-6, position 2 to 3, and Figure 9-8] The wind
correction angle is at the maximum when the aircraft is
headed directly crosswind. [Figure 9-6, position 3]
After turning 90°, the aircraft’s heading becomes more
and more an upwind heading, the groundspeed decreases,
and the rate of closure with the road becomes slower.
If a constant steep bank were maintained, the aircraft
would turn too quickly for the slower rate of closure and
would prematurely be headed perpendicular to the road.
Because of the decreasing groundspeed and rate of closure
while approaching the upwind heading, it is necessary to
gradually shallow the bank during the remaining 90° of the
semicircle, so that the wind correction angle is removed
completely [Figure 9-9] and the wings become level as the
180° turn is completed at the moment the road is reached.
[Figure 9-6, position 4]
At the instant the road is being crossed at 90° to it, a turn in
the opposite direction should be started. Since the aircraft is
still fl ying into the headwind, the groundspeed is relatively
low. Therefore, the turn must be started with a shallow bank
to avoid an excessive rate of turn that would establish the
maximum wind correction angle too soon. The degree of bank
should be that which is necessary to attain the proper wind
correction angle so the ground track describes an arc the same
size as the one established on the downwind side.
Since the aircraft is turning from an upwind to a downwind
heading, the groundspeed increases and after turning
90° the rate of closure with the road increases rapidly.
[Figure 9-6, position 5] Consequently, the angle of bank
and rate of turn must be progressively increased so that
the aircraft has turned 180° at the time it reaches the road.
Again, the rollout must be timed so the aircraft is in straight-
and-level fl ight directly over and perpendicular to the road.
[Figure 9-6, position 6]
Throughout the maneuver a constant altitude and airspeed
should be maintained, and the bank should be changing
constantly to effect a true semicircular ground track.
Common errors in the performance of S-turns across a road
are:
• Failure to adequately clear the area.
• Creating too small of a radius/too high of a banked
turn during the start of the maneuver.
• Creating banked turns too high to complete the
maneuver.
• Poor coordination creating variations in airspeeds.
• Gaining or losing altitude.
• Inability to visualize the half circle ground track.
• Poor timing in beginning and recovering from turns.
• Faulty correction for drift.
• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft.
• Inability to judge closure rates to the road and adjust
the bank angle so the semi-circle is completed at 90°
to the reference road.
Turns Around a Point
Turns around a point, as a training maneuver, is a logical
extension of the principles involved in the performance of
S-turns across a road. The objectives are to:
• Further perfect turning technique.
• Perfect the ability to control the aircraft subconsciously
while dividing attention between the fl ightpath and
ground references.
Downwind Half of Circle
Upwind Half of Circle
Wind
Shallowest Bank Steepest Bank
Entry
Figure 9-10. Turns around a point.
• Teach the student that the radius of a turn is a distance
that is affected by the degree of bank used when
turning with relation to a defi nite object.
• Develop a keen perception of altitude.
• Perfect the ability to correct for wind drift while in
turns.
In turns around a point, the aircraft is fl own in two or
more complete circles of uniform radii or distance from a
prominent ground reference point using a maximum bank of
approximately 45° while maintaining a constant altitude.
The factors and principles of drift correction that are involved
in S-turns are also applicable in this maneuver. As in other
ground track maneuvers, a constant radius around a point
requires a constantly changing angle of bank and angles of
wind correction if any wind exists. The closer the aircraft is to
a direct downwind heading where the groundspeed is greatest,
the steeper the bank and the faster the rate of turn required to
establish the proper wind correction angle. The more nearly it
is to a direct upwind heading where the groundspeed is least,
the shallower the bank and the slower the rate of turn required
to establish the proper wind correction angle. Throughout the
maneuver, the bank and rate of turn must be varied gradually
in proportion to the groundspeed.
The point selected for turns around a point should be prominent,
easily distinguished by the pilot, and yet small enough to
present precise reference. [Figures 9-10 through 9-12]
Isolated trees, crossroads, or other similar small landmarks
are usually suitable. Right and left hand turns about a point
should be practiced to develop technique in both directions.
The example used here is right hand turns.
To enter turns around a point, the aircraft should be fl own
on a downwind heading to one side of the selected point
at a distance equal to the desired radius of turn. When any
signifi cant wind exists, it will be necessary to roll into the
initial bank at a rapid rate so that the steepest bank is attained
abeam of the point when the aircraft is headed directly
downwind. By entering the maneuver while heading directly
downwind, the steepest bank can be attained immediately.
Thus, if a maximum bank of 45° is desired, the initial bank
is 45° if the aircraft is at the correct distance from the point.
Thereafter, the bank is shallowed gradually until the point is
reached at which the aircraft is headed directly upwind. At
this point, the bank should be gradually steepened until the
steepest bank is again attained when heading downwind at
the initial point of entry.
Just as S-turns require that the aircraft be turned into the wind
in addition to varying the bank, so do turns around a point.
During the downwind half of the circle, the aircraft’s nose is
progressively turned toward the inside of the circle; during
the upwind half, the nose is progressively turned toward the
outside. The downwind half of the turn around the point may
be compared to the downwind side of the S-turn across a road;
the upwind half of the turn around a point may be compared
to the upwind side of the S-turn across a road.
Figure 9-11. Downwind portion of turn about a point, which is the gazebo jutting out into the lake. Notice the wing is low on the downwind
portion where the angle of bank is greatest.
Figure 9-12. Upwind portion of the turn about a point. Notice the wing is higher because bank angle is not at as steep during the upwind
portion headed into the wind to maintain a constant radius circle.
As the pilot becomes experienced in performing turns
around a point and has a good understanding of the effects
of wind drift and varying the bank angle and wind correction
angle as required, entry into the maneuver may be from any
point. When entering the maneuver at a point other than
downwind, however, the radius of the turn should be carefully
selected. Be sure to take into account the wind velocity and
groundspeed so that an excessive bank is not required later
on to maintain the proper ground track. The fl ight instructor
should place particular emphasis on the effect of an incorrect
initial bank.
Common errors in the performance of turns around a point
are:
• Failure to clear the area adequately.
• Failure to establish appropriate bank on entry.
• Failure to recognize wind drift.
• Inadequate bank angle and/or inadequate wind
correction angle on the downwind portion of the circle,
resulting in drift away from the reference point.
• Excessive bank and/or inadequate wind correction
angle on the upwind side of the circle, resulting in
drift towards the reference point.
• Gaining or losing altitude.
• Inability to maintain a constant airspeed.
• Inadequate visual lookout for other aircraft.
• Inability to direct attention outside the aircraft while
maintaining precise aircraft control.
Chapter Summary
Ground reference maneuvers and related factors are used
in developing a high degree of pilot skill in analyzing the
effect of wind and other forces acting on the aircraft for
accurate and safe maneuvering of the aircraft. The specifi c
maneuvers are:
• Rectangular course,
• S-turns across a road, and
• Turns about a point.
These are training maneuvers that should be mastered to
within the tolerances in the PTS.
Introduction
Just as roads and streets are needed in order to facilitate
automobile traffi c, airports are needed to facilitate aircraft
traffi c. Every fl ight begins and ends at an airport. An airport,
as defi ned by Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(14 CFR) section 1.1, is an area of land or water that is
used or intended to be used for the landing and takeoff of
aircraft. For this reason, it is essential pilots learn the traffi c
rules, procedures, and patterns that may be in use at various
airports.
When an automobile is driven on congested city streets, it
can be brought to a stop to give way to confl icting traffi c;
however, an aircraft can only be slowed down. Consequently,
specifi c traffi c patterns and traffi c control procedures have
been established at designated airports. Traffi c patterns
provide specifi c routes for takeoffs, departures, arrivals,
and landings. The exact nature of each airport traffic
pattern is dependent on the runway in use, wind conditions,
obstructions, and other factors.
Airport Traffi c Patterns
Chapter 10
Airport Operations
Airports vary in complexity from small grass or sod
strips to major terminals having multiple paved runways
and taxiways. Regardless of the type of airport, the pilot
must know and abide by the rules and general operating
procedures applicable to the airport being used. These rules
and procedures are based not only on logic or common sense
but also on courtesy, and their objective is to keep air traffi c
moving with maximum safety and effi ciency. The use of
any traffi c pattern, service, or procedure does not alter the
responsibility of pilots to see and avoid other aircraft.
Generally, there are two types of airport operations:
• Uncontrolled airports where there is no control
tower
• Controlled airports where there is a control tower with
an air traffi c controller
Airport operations is a prerequisite for reading and
understanding this chapter. The Pilot’s Handbook of
Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25) chapter on
airport operations is the starting point for this subject.
Additionally, the portions of the Aeronautical Information
Manual (AIM) covering aeronautical lighting and other
airport visual aids, airspace, and air traffi c control, should
be studied prior to reading this chapter.
The following airport patterns are applicable to both towered
and nontowered airport operations; however, in nontowered
airports the pilot should use the information presented in this
chapter along with the references provided in the summary to
coordinate with the other air traffi c. When fl ying at towered
airports, the principles must be understood to understand
the air traffi c controller’s instructions. The pilot is always
responsible for “see and avoid” and must continually look
for other aircraft in towered and nontowered operations.
Standard Airport Traffi c Patterns
To assure that air traffi c fl ows into and out of an airport in
an orderly manner, an airport traffi c pattern is established
appropriate to the local conditions, including the direction
and placement of the pattern, altitude to be fl own, and
procedures for entering and leaving the pattern. Unless the
airport displays approved visual markings indicating that
turns should be made to the right, pilots should make all
turns in the pattern to the left.
When operating at an airport with an operating control tower,
the pilot receives by radio a clearance to approach or depart,
as well as pertinent information about the traffi c pattern. If
there is not a control tower, it is the pilot’s responsibility to
determine the direction of the traffi c pattern, to comply with
the appropriate traffi c rules, and to display common courtesy
toward other pilots operating in the area.
The pilot is not expected to have extensive knowledge of
all traffi c patterns at all airports; but if the pilot is familiar
with the basic rectangular pattern, it is easy to make proper
approaches and departures from most airports, regardless of
whether they have control towers. At airports with operating
control towers, the tower operator may instruct pilots to
enter the traffi c pattern at any point or to make a straight-
in approach without fl ying the usual rectangular pattern.
Many other deviations are possible if the tower operator and
the pilot work together in an effort to keep traffi c moving
smoothly. Jets or heavy aircraft frequently fl y wider and/or
higher patterns than lighter aircraft and in many cases make
a straight-in approach for landing.
The standard rectangular traffic pattern and terms are
illustrated in Figure 10-1. The terms of an airport in the
pattern after takeoff are described in Figure 10-1.
Departure leg—the fl ightpath which begins after takeoff
and continues straight ahead along the extended runway
centerline.
Crosswind leg—a fl ightpath at right angles to the landing
runway off its takeoff end.
Downwind leg—a fl ightpath parallel to the landing runway
in the opposite direction of landing.
Base leg—a fl ightpath at right angles to the landing runway
off its approach end and extending from the downwind leg
to the intersection of the extended runway centerline (third
left hand 90° turn).
Final approach—a fl ightpath in the direction of landing
along the extended runway centerline from the base leg to
the runway.
Upwind leg—a fl ightpath parallel to the landing runway in
the direction of landing (not shown in Figure 10-1).
The traffi c pattern altitude is usually 1,000 feet above the
elevation of the airport surface; however, many airports use
different pattern altitudes for different types of aircraft. This
information can be found in the Airport/Facility Directory
(A/FD). The use of a common or known altitude at a given
airport is a key factor in minimizing the risk of collisions at
airports without operating control towers because aircraft can
be expected to be at a certain level making it easier to see.
WIND
Downwind
Entry
Final
Base
Crosswind
Departure
Left-Hand Traffic Pattern
WIND
Downwind
Entry
Final
Base
Crosswind
Departure
Right-Hand Traffic Pattern
Figure 10-1. Left and right hand traffic patterns. The WSC pattern altitude shown is the same as the airplane but the slower WSC aircraft
uses a smaller “inside pattern” or “tight pattern.”