Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3C)
Chapter 10: Performance Maneuvers
Introduction
Basic flight maneuvers taught to pilots include: straight-and-level, turns, climbs, and descents. As training advances, other
performance maneuvers serve to further develop piloting skills. Performance maneuvers enhance a pilot’s proficiency in flight control
application, maneuver planning, situational awareness, and division of attention. To further that intent, performance maneuver design
allows for the application of flight control pressures, attitudes, airspeeds, and orientations that constantly change throughout the
maneuver.
Deficiencies during execution of performance maneuvers often occur when a pilot lacks an understanding of fundamental skills or
never mastered them. Performance maneuver training should not take place until the pilot demonstrates consistent competency in the
fundamentals. Further, initial training for performance maneuvers should always begin with a detailed ground lesson for each
maneuver, so that the learner understands the technicalities prior to flight. In addition, performance maneuver training should use
segmented building blocks of instruction so as to allow the pilot an appropriate level of repetition necessary to develop the required
skills.
Performance maneuvers, once grasped by the pilot, are very satisfying and rewarding. As the pilot develops skills in executin g
performance maneuvers, they may likely see an increased smoothness in their flight control application and an increased ability to
sense the airplane’s attitude and orientation without significant conscious effort.
Steep Turns
Steep turns consist of single to multiple 360° and 720° turns, in either or both directions, using a bank angle between 45° and 60°.
The objective of the steep turn is to develop a pilot’s skill in flight control smoothness and coordination, an awareness of the
airplane’s orientation to outside references, division of attention between flight control applications, and the constant need to scan
for hazards and other traffic in the area. [Figure 10-1]
Figure 10-1. Steep turns.
While the fundamental concepts of all turns are the same, when steep turns are first demonstrated and performed, the pilot will be
exposed to:
1. Higher G-forces
2. The airplane’s in herent overbanking tendency
3. Significant loss of the vertical component of lift when the wings are steeply banked
4. Substantial pitch control pressures
5. The need for increased additional power to maintain altitude at a constant airspeed during the turn
As discussed in previous chapters, when banking an airplane for a level turn, the total lift divides into vertical and horizontal
components of lift. In order to maintain altitude at a constant airspeed, the pilot increases the angle of attack (AOA) to ensure that the
vertical component of lift is sufficient to maintain altitude. The pilot adds power as needed to maintain airspeed. For a steep turn, as
in any level turn, the horizontal component of lift provides the necessary force to turn the airplane. Regardless of the airspeed or
airplane, for a given bank angle in a level altitude turn, the same load factor will always be produced. The load factor is the vector
addition of gravity and centrifugal force. When the bank becomes steep as in a level altitude 45° banked turn, the resulting load factor
is 1.41. In a level altitude 60° banked turn, the resulting load factor is 2.0. To put this in perspective, with a load fact or of 2.0, the
effective weight of the aircraft (and its occupants) doubles. Pilots may have difficulty with orientation and movement when first
experiencing these forces. Pilots should also understand that load factors increase dramatically during a level turn beyond 60° of
bank. Note that the design of a standard category general aviation airplane accommodates a load factor up to 3.8. A level tu rn using
75° of bank exceeds that limit.
Because of higher load factors, steep turns should be performed at an airspeed that does not exceed the airplane’s design maneuvering
speed (V A) or operating maneuvering speed (V O). Maximum turning performance for a given speed is accomplished when an
airplane has a high angle of bank. Each airplane’s level turning performance is limited by structural and aerodynamic design, as well
as available power. The airplane’s limiting load factor determines the maximum bank angle that can be maintained in level flight
without exceeding the airplane’s structural limitations or stalling. As the load factor increases, so does the stalling speed. For
example, if an airplane stalls in level flight at 50 knots, it will stall at 60 knots in a 45° steep turn while maintaining altitude. It will
stall at 70 knots if the bank is increased to 60°. Stalling speed increases at the square root of the load factor. As the bank angle
increases in level flight, the margin between stalling speed and maneuvering speed decreases. At speeds at or below V A or VO, the
airplane will stall before exceeding the design load limit.
In addition to the increased load factors, the airplane will exhibit what is called “overbanking tendency” as previously discussed in
Chapter 3, Basic Flight Maneuvers. In most flight maneuvers, bank angles are shallow enough that the airplane exhibits positive or
neutral stability about the longitudinal axis. However, as bank angles steepen, the airplane will continue rolling in the direction of the
bank unless deliberate and opposite aileron pressure is held. Pilots should also be mindful of the various left-turning tendencies, such
as P-factor, which require effective rudder/aileron coordination. While performing a steep turn, a significant component of yaw is
experienced as motion away from and toward the earth's surface, which may seem confusing when first experienced.
Before starting any practice maneuver, the pilot ensures that the area is clear of air traffic and other hazards. Further, distant
references should be chosen to allow the pilot to assess when to begin rollout from the turn. After establishing the manufact urer’s
recommended entry speed, V A, or V O, as applicable, the airplane should be smoothly rolled into a predetermined bank angle
between 45° and 60°. As the bank angle is being established, generally prior to 30° of bank, elevator back pressure should be
smoothly applied to increase the AOA and power should be added. Pilots should keep in mind that as the AOA increases, so does
drag, and additional power allows the airplane to maintain airspeed. After the selected bank angle has been reached, the pilot will find
that considerable force is required on the elevator control to hold the airplane in level flight.
The certification testing standards do not specify trim requirements for a steep turn. The decision whether to use trim depends on the
airplane characteristics, speed of the trim system, and preference of the instructor and learner. As the bank angle transitions from
medium to steep, increasing elevator-up trim and smoothly increasing engine power to that required for the turn removes some or all
of the control forces required to maintain a higher angle of attack. However, if trim is used, pilots should not forget to r emove both
the trim and power inputs as the maneuver is completed.
Maintaining bank angle, altitude, and orientation requires an awareness of the relative position of the horizon to the nose and the
wings. The pilot who references the aircraft’s attitude by observing only the nose will have difficulty maintaining altitude. A pilot
who observes both the nose and the wings relative to the horizon is likely able to maintain altitude within performance standards.
Altitude deviations are primary errors exhibited in the execution of steep turns. Minor corrections for pitch attitude are accomplished
with proportional elevator back pressure while the bank angle is held constant with the ailerons. However, during steep turns, it is not
uncommon for a pilot to allow the nose to get excessively low resulting in a significant loss in altitude in a very short period of time.
The pilot can recover from such an altitude loss by first reducing the angle of bank with coordinated use of opposite aileron and
rudder and then increasing the pitch attitude by increasing elevator back pressure. Attempting to recover from an excessively nose-
low, steep bank condition by using only the elevator causes a steepening of the bank and puts unnecessary stress on the airplane.
The rollout from the steep turn should be timed so that the wings reach level flight when the airplane is on the heading from which the
maneuver was started. A good rule of thumb is to begin the rollout at ½ the number of degrees of bank prior to reaching the
terminating heading. For example, if a right steep turn was begun on a heading of 270° and if the bank angle is 60°, the pilot should
begin the rollout 30° prior or at a heading of 240°. While the rollout is being made, elevator back pressure, trim (if used), and power
should be gradually reduced, as necessary, to maintain the altitude and airspeed.
Common errors when performing steep turns are:
1. Not clearing the area
2. Inadequate pitch control on entry or rollout
3. Gaining or losing altitude
4. Failure to maintain constant bank angle
5. Poor flight control coordination
6. Ineffective use of trim
7. Ineffective use of power
8. Inadequate airspeed control
9. Becoming disoriented
10. Performing by reference to the flight instruments rather than visual references
11. Failure to scan for other traffic during the maneuver
12. Attempting to start recovery prematurely
13. Failure to stop the turn on the designated heading
Steep Spiral
The objective of the steep spiral is to provide a flight maneuver for rapidly dissipating substantial amounts of altitude while remaining
over a selected spot. This maneuver may be useful during an emergency landing. A steep spiral is a gliding turn wherein the pilot
maintains a constant radius around a surface-based reference point —similar to the turns around a point maneuver, but in this case the
airplane is rapidly descending. The maneuver consists of the completion of at least three 360 ° turns [Figure 10-2], and should begin
at sufficient altitude such that the maneuver concludes no lower than 1,500 feet above ground level (AGL). Note that while there are
similarities between a steep spiral and an emergency descent, the reasons for using the two maneuvers may differ, and the airspeed
and configuration are usually different.
Figure 10-2. Steep spiral.
The steep spiral is initiated by properly clearing the airspace for air traffic and hazards. In general, the throttle is closed to idle,
carburetor heat is applied if equipped, and gliding speed is established. Once the proper airspeed is attained, the pitch should be
lowered and the airplane rolled to the desired bank angle as the reference point is reached. The pilot should consider the distance
from the reference point since that establishes the turning radius, and the steepest bank should not exceed 60°. The gliding spiral
should be a turn of constant radius while maintaining the airplane’s position relative to the reference. This can only be accomplished
by proper correction for wind drift by steepening the bank on downwind headings and shallowing the bank on upwind headings.
During the steep spiral, the pilot should continually correct for any changes in wind direction and velocity to maintain a constant
radius.
Operating the engine at idle speed for any prolonged period during the glide may result in excessive engine cooling, spark pl ug
fouling, or carburetor ice. To assist in avoiding these issues, the throttle should be periodically advanced and sustained for a few
seconds. Monitoring cylinder head temperature gauges, if available, provides a pilot with additional information on engine cooling.
When advancing the throttle, the pitch attitude should be adjusted to maintain a constant airspeed and, preferably, this should be done
when headed into the wind.
Maintaining a constant airspeed throughout the maneuver is an important skill for a pilot to develop. This is necessary because the
airspeed tends to fluctuate as the bank angle is changed throughout the maneuver. The pilot should anticipate pitch corrections as the
bank angle is varied throughout the maneuver. During practice of the maneuver, the pilot should execute at least three turns and roll
out toward a definite object or on a specific heading. To make the exercise more challenging, the pilot rolls out on a headin g
perpendicular to or directly into the wind rather toward a specific object. This ability would be a particularly useful skill in the event
of an actual emergency. In addition, noting the altitude lost during each revolution would help the pilot determine when to roll out in
an actual emergency so as not to be too high or too low to make a safe approach. During rollout, the smooth and accurate application
of the flight controls allow the airplane to recover to a wings-level glide with no change in airspeed. Recovering to normal cruise
flight would proceed after the establishment of a wings-level glide.
Common errors when performing steep spirals are:
1. Not clearing the area
2. Inadequate pitch control on entry or rollout
3. Not correcting the bank angle to compensate for wind
4. Poor flight control coordination
5. Ineffective use of trim
6. Inadequate airspeed control
7. Becoming disoriented
8. Performing by reference to the flight instruments rather than visual references
9. Not scanning for other traffic during the maneuver
10. Not completing the turn on the designated heading or reference
Chandelle
A chandelle is a maximum performance, 180° climbing turn that begins from approximately straight-and-level flight and concludes
with the airplane in a wings-level, nose-high attitude just above stall speed. [Figure 10-3] The goal is to gain the most altitude
possible for a given bank angle and power setting; however, the standard used to judge the maneuver is not the amount of altitude
gained, but rather the pilot’s proficiency as it pertains to maximizing climb performance for the power and bank selected, as well as
the skill demonstrated.
A chandelle is best described in two specific phases: the first 90° of turn and the second 90° of turn. The first 90° of turn is described
as constant bank and continuously increasing pitch; and the second 90° as constant pitch and continuously decreasing bank. During
the first 90°, the pilot will set the bank angle, increase power, and increase pitch attitude at a rate such that maximum pit ch-up occurs
at the completion of the first 90°. The maximum pitch-up attitude achieved at the 90° mark is held for the remainder of the maneuver.
If the pitch attitude is set too low, the airplane’s airspeed will never decrease to just above stall speed. If the pitch attitude is set too
high, the airplane may aerodynamically stall prior to completion of the maneuver. Starting at the 90° point, and while maintaining the
pitch attitude set at the end of the first 90°, the pilot begins a slow and coordinated constant rate rollout so as to have the wings level
when the airplane is at the 180° point. If the rate of rollout is too rapid or sluggish, the airplane either exceeds the 180° turn or does
not complete the turn as the wings come level to the horizon.