Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3C)
Chapter 9: Approaches and Landings
Introduction
There is an old saying that while takeoff is optional, landing is mandatory. In consideration of that adage, this chapter focuses on the
approach to landing, factors that affect landings, types of landings, and aspects of faulty landings. A careful pilot knows that the safe
outcome of a landing should never be in doubt. Pilots who respect their own limitations are able to approach each landing with confidence
and achieve the satisfaction that comes from successful aircraft control. After any landing, a pilot performs a self-evaluation. If there is
a question, a read of the relevant section in this chapter may help. When needed, additional flight instruction enhances safety.
The manufacturer’s recommended procedures, including airplane configuration and airspeeds, and other information relevant to
approaches and landings in a specific make and model airplane are contained in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)-approved
Airplane Flight Manual and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) for that airplane. If any of the information in this chapter differs
from the airplane manufacturer’s recommendations as contained in the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer’s recommendations take
precedence.
Use of Flaps
The following general discussion applies to airplanes equipped with flaps. The pilot may use landing flaps during the descent to adjust
lift and drag. Flap settings help determine the landing spot and the descent angle to that spot. [Figure 9-1 and Figure 9-2] Flap extension
during approaches and landings provides several advantages by:
1. Producing greater lift and permitting lower approach and landing speeds,
2. Producing greater drag and permitting a steeper descent angle,
3. Increasing forward visibility by allowing a lower pitch, and
4. Reducing the length of the landing roll.
Figure 9-1. Effect of flaps on the landing point.
Figure 9-2. Effect of flaps on the approach angle.
The increased camber from flap deflection increases lift, primarily on the rear portion of the wing. This produces a nose-down pitching
moment which may cause the airplane to pitch down. Flap deployment may also affect wing downwash on the horizontal tail and alter
the tail-down force. Consequently, pitch behavior from flap extension depends on the design of the particular airplane.
Flap deflection of up to 15° primarily produces lift with minimal drag. The airplane has a tendency to balloon up with initial flap
deflection because of the lift increase. The nose-down pitching moment, however, tends to offset the balloon. Flap deflection beyond
15° produces a large increase in drag. Deflection beyond 15° also produces a significant nose-up pitching moment in certain high-wing
airplanes because the resulting downwash changes the airflow over the horizontal tail.
The time of flap extension and the degree of deflection are related. Large changes in flap deflection at one single point in the landing
pattern can produce large lift changes that require significant pitch and power changes in order to maintain airspeed and descent angle.
Consequently, there is an advantage to extending flaps in increments while in the landing pattern. Incremental deflection of flaps on
downwind, base leg, and final approach allow smaller adjustments of pitch and power and support a stabilized approach.
Whenever the flap setting is changed, the pilot should be prepared to re-trim the airplane as needed to compensate for the change in
aerodynamic forces. Throughout this chapter, more detail is provided on the use of flaps during specific approach and landing situations,
as appropriate.
Normal Approach and Landing
Normal approach and landing procedures are used when the engine power is available, the wind is light or the final approach is made
directly into the wind, the final approach path has no obstacles, and the landing surface is firm and of ample length to gradually bring the
airplane to a stop. The selected landing point is normally beyond the runway approach threshold but within the first 1⁄3 of the runway.
The factors involved and the procedures described for the normal approach and landing also have applications to the other-than-normal
approaches and landings discussed later in this chapter. The principles of normal operations are explained first and need to be understood
before proceeding to the more complex operations. To better understand the factors that influence judgment and procedures, the last part
of the approach pattern and the actual landing are divided into five phases:
1. the base leg
2. the final approach
3. the round out (flare)
4. the touchdown
5. the after-landing roll
Base Leg
The placement of the base leg is one of the important judgments made by the pilot to set up for a good landing. [ Figure 9-3] The pilot
accurately judges the height, distance from the approach end of the runway, and rate of descent to allow a stabilized approach, round
out, and touchdown at the desired spot. The distance depends on the altitude of the base leg, the current winds, and the amount of wing
flaps used. When there is a strong wind on final approach or the flaps are used to produce a steep angle of descent, the base leg should
be positioned closer to the approach end of the runway than would be required with normal winds or flap settings. Normally, the landing
gear is extended and the before-landing check completed prior to reaching the base leg.
After turning onto the base leg, the pilot starts or continues the descent with reduced power and a target airspeed of approximately 1.4
VSO—the stalling speed in the landing configuration. For example, if VSO is 60 knots, 1.4 VSO is 84 knots (84 = 1.4 x 60). Landing flaps
should be deployed as recommended. Full flaps are not recommended until the final approach is established. Since the final approach
and landing are normally made into the wind, there is usually a crosswind during the base leg. A drift correction is established and
maintained to follow a ground track perpendicular to the extension of the landing runway centerline. This requires that the airplane be
angled sufficiently into the wind to prevent drifting farther away from the intended landing spot.
Figure 9-3. Base leg and final approach.
Final Approach
After the base-to-final approach turn is completed, the pilot aligns the longitudinal axis of the airplane with the centerline of the runway
or landing surface. On a final approach, with no crosswind, the longitudinal axis is kept aligned with the runway centerline throughout
the final approach and landing. (Methods to correct for a crosswind are explained in the “Crosswind Approach and Landing” section of
this chapter. For now, only approaches and landings where the wind is straight down the runway are discussed.)
After aligning the airplane with the runway centerline, the final flap setting is completed and the pitch attitude adjusted as required. Some
adjustment of pitch and power may be necessary to maintain the desired rate of descent and approach airspeed. The pilot should use
the manufacturer's recommended airspeed or 1.3 V SO if there is no manufacturer's recommendation. As the pitch attitude and airspeed
stabilize, the airplane is re-trimmed to relieve any control pressure.
The descent angle is controlled throughout the approach so that the airplane lands in the center of the first third of the runway. The descent
angle is affected by all four fundamental forces that act on an airplane (lift, drag, thrust, and weight). If all the forces are balanced out
such that the net force on the airplane is zero, the descent angle remains constant in a steady state wind condition. The pilot controls these
forces by adjusting the airspeed, attitude, power, and drag (flaps or forward slip). However, wind may affect the gliding distance over
the ground [Figure 9-4]; the pilot does not have control over the wind, but corrects for its effect on the airplane’s descent by adjusting
pitch and power appropriately.
Figure 9-4. Effect of headwind on final approach.
A well-executed final approach includes reaching the desired touchdown point at an airspeed that results in minimum floating just
before touchdown. To accomplish this, both the descent angle and the airspeed need to be controlled. This is one reason for performing
approaches with partial power; if the approach is too high, the pilot can lower the nose and reduce the power to maintain the correct
airspeed. When the approach is too low, the pilot can add power and raise the nose.
While the proper angle of descent and airspeed are maintained by integrating pitch and power changes, an untrained or inexperienced
pilot may try to reach a landing spot by applying back-elevator pressure without adding power. However, attempting to stretch the final
approach by raising the pitch attitude alone is almost always a bad idea. Using pitch alone causes a significant increase in AOA and decay
in airspeed that leads to an excessive rate of descent or a low altitude stall. It is possible for either or both to occur.
Wrong Surface Landing Avoidance
A wrong surface landing occurs when an aircraft lands or tries to land on the wrong runway, on a taxiway in error, or at the wrong airport.
The pilot should take a moment on every final approach to verify the correctness of the landing zone ahead.
Lack of familiarity with a particular airport, complacency, or fatigue may lead to pilot confusion, and occasionally a pilot will line up
with the wrong surface while perceiving the situation as normal. A pilot may compensate for any lack of destination airport familiarity
by studying an airport diagram and lighting ahead of time and noting key features and geometry. On final approach, the pilot should
verify correct runway alignment and runway number. Pilots often refer to moving map displays driven by GPS, and these devices should
increase situational awareness and safety. If there is a doubt over the landing surface, the pilot should go around and consider the situation
further.
Stabilized Approach Concept
A stabilized approach is one in which the pilot establishes and maintains a constant-angle glide path towards a predetermined point on the
landing runway. It is based on the pilot’s judgment of certain visual clues and depends on maintaining a constant final descent airspeed
and configuration.
An airplane descending on final approach at a constant rate and airspeed travels in a straight line towards a spot on the ground ahead,
commonly called the aiming point. If the airplane maintains a constant glide path without a round out for landing, it will strike the ground
at the aiming point. [Figure 9-5]
Figure 9-5. Stabilized approach.
To the pilot, the aiming point appears to be stationary. It does not appear to move under the nose of the aircraft and does not appear to
move forward away from the aircraft. This feature identifies the aiming point—it does not move. However, objects in front of and beyond
the aiming point do appear to move as the distance is closed, and they appear to move in opposite directions! For a constant angle glide
path, the distance between the horizon and the aiming point remains constant. If descending at a constant angle and the distance between
the perceived aiming point and the horizon appears to increase (aiming point moving down away from the horizon), then the true aiming
point is farther down the runway. If the distance between the perceived aiming point and the horizon decreases, meaning that the aiming
point is moving up toward the horizon, the true aiming point is closer than perceived.
During instruction in landings, one of the important skills a pilot acquires is how to use visual cues to discern the true aiming point from
any distance out on final approach. From this, the pilot determines if the current glide path will result in either an under or overshoot.
Note that the aiming point is not where the airplane actually touches down. Since the pilot reduces the rate of descent during the round
out (flare), the actual touchdown occurs farther down the runway. Considering float during round out, the pilot is also able to predict the
point of touchdown with some accuracy.
When the airplane is established on final approach, the shape of the runway image also presents clues as to what should be done to
maintain a stabilized approach to a safe landing.
Obviously, a runway is normally shaped in the form of an elongated rectangle. When viewed from the air during the approach, the
phenomenon, known as perspective, causes the runway to assume the shape of a trapezoid with the far end looking narrower than the
approach end and the edge lines converging ahead.
As an airplane continues down the glide path at a constant angle (stabilized), the image the pilot sees is still trapezoidal, but of
proportionately larger dimensions. In other words, during a stabilized approach, the runway shape does not change. [Figure 9-6]
Figure 9-6. Runway shape during stabilized approach.
If the approach becomes shallow, the runway appears to shorten and become wider. Conversely, if the approach is steepened, the runway
appears to become longer and narrower. [Figure 9-7]
Figure 9-7. Change in runway shape if approach becomes narrow or steep.
Immediately after rolling out on final approach, the pilot adjusts the pitch attitude, power, and trim so that the airplane is descending
directly toward the aiming point at the appropriate airspeed in the landing configuration. If it appears that the airplane is going to
overshoot the desired landing spot, a steeper approach results by reducing power and lowering the pitch attitude to maintain airspeed.
If available and not fully extended, the pilot may further extend the flaps. If the desired landing spot is being undershot and a shallower
approach is needed, the pilot increases both power and pitch attitude to reduce the descent angle. Once the approach is set up and control
pressures removed with trim, the pilot is free to devote significant attention toward outside references and use the available visual cues
to fine tune the approach. The pilot should not stare at any one place, but rather scan from one point to another, such as from the aiming
point to the horizon, to any objects along the runway, to an area well short of the runway, and back to the aiming point. This makes it
easier to perceive any deviation from the desired glide path and determine if the airplane is proceeding directly toward the aiming point.
The pilot should also glance at the airspeed indicator periodically and correct for any airspeed deviation.
Pilots normally establish a stabilized approach before short final. The round out, touchdown, and landing roll are much easier to
accomplish when preceded by a stabilized final approach, which reduces the chance of a landing mishap. Therefore, deviations from the
desired glide path should be detected and corrected early so that the magnitude of corrections during the later portion of the approach is
small. If the approach is very high or very low, it may not be possible to establish a stabilized approach, and the pilot normally executes a
go-around. If the airplane is initially low and undershooting the aiming point, the pilot may intercept the desired glide path by increasing
pitch attitude and adding power to level off while maintaining the correct airspeed. This may necessitate a substantial increase in power
if the aircraft is operating on the backside of the power curve. As the airplane intercepts the desired glide path, the pilot reduces power
and pitches down to remain on the glide path. Retracting the flaps to correct for an undershoot creates an unnecessary risk. It may cause
a sudden decrease in lift, an excessive sink rate, and an aggravated unstable condition.
If the approach is too high or too low, it may not be possible to establish a stabilized approach, and the pilot should execute a go-
around. Typically, pilots go-around if unable to establish a stabilized approach by 500 ft above airport elevation in visual meteorological
conditions (VMC) or 1,000 ft above airport elevation in instrument conditions (IMC). For a typical GA piston aircraft in a traffic pattern,
an immediate go-around should be initiated if the approach becomes unstabilized below 300 ft AGL.
Pilots may consider the following elements when attempting to set up and fly a stabilized approach to landing. The pilot should focus
on the elements that lead to a stabilized approach rather than the order of the elements or the insistence on meeting all of the approach
criteria. For a typical piston aircraft, an approach is stabilized when the following criteria are met:
1. Glide path. Typically a constant 3 degrees to the touchdown zone on the runway (obstructions permitting).
2. Heading. The aircraft tracks the centerline to the runway with only minor heading/pitch changes necessary to correct for wind
or turbulence to maintain alignment. Bank angle normally limited to 15 degrees once established on final.
3. Airspeed. The aircraft speed is within +10 /-5 KIAS of the recommended landing speed specified in the AFM, 1.3VSO, or on
approved placards/markings. If the pilot applies a gust factor, indicated airspeed should not decay below the recommended
landing speed.
4. Configuration. The aircraft is in the correct landing configuration with flaps as required; landing gear extended, and is in trim.
5. Descent rate. A descent rate (generally 500-1000 fpm for light general aviation aircraft) makes for a safe approach. Minimal
adjustments to the descent rate as the airplane approaches the runway provide an additional indication of a stabilized and safe
approach. If using a descent rate in excess of 500 fpm due to approach considerations, the pilot should reduce the descent rate
prior to 300 ft AGL.
6. Power setting. The pilot should use a power setting appropriate for the aircraft configuration and not below the minimum
power for approach as defined by the AFM.
7. Briefings and checklists. Completing all briefings and checklists prior to initiating the approach (except the landing checklist),
ensures the pilot can focus on the elements listed above.
Estimating Airplane Movement and Height
During short final, round out, and touchdown, vision is of prime importance. To provide a wide scope of vision and to foster good
judgment of height and movement, the pilot’s head should assume a natural, straight-ahead position. Visual focus is not fixed on any
one side or any one spot ahead of the airplane. Instead, it is changed slowly from a point just over the airplane’s nose to the desired
touchdown zone and back again. This is done while maintaining a deliberate awareness of distance from either side of the runway using
peripheral vision.
Accurate estimation of distance, besides being a matter of practice, depends upon how clearly objects are seen. It requires that vision be
focused properly so that the important objects stand out as clearly as possible.
Speed blurs objects at close range. For example, most everyone has noted this in an automobile moving at high speed. Nearby objects
seem to merge together in a blur, while objects farther away stand out clearly. The driver subconsciously focuses the eyes sufficiently
far ahead of the automobile to see objects distinctly.
The distance at which the pilot’s vision is focused should be proportional to the speed at which the airplane is traveling over the ground.
Thus, as speed is reduced during the round out, the distance ahead of the airplane at which it is possible to focus is brought closer
accordingly.
If the pilot attempts to focus on a reference that is too close or looks directly down, the reference becomes blurred, [Figure 9-8] and the
reaction is either too abrupt or too late. In this case, the pilot’s tendency is to over-control, round out high, and make full-stall, drop-in
landings. If the pilot focuses too far ahead, accuracy in judging the closeness of the ground is lost and the consequent reaction is too slow,
since there does not appear to be a necessity for action. This sometimes results in the airplane flying into the ground nose first. The change
of visual focus from a long distance to a short distance requires a definite time interval, and even though the time is brief, the airplane’s
speed during this interval is such that the airplane travels an appreciable distance, both forward and downward toward the ground.
Figure 9-8. Focusing too close blurs vision.
Visual cues are important in flaring at the proper height and maintaining the wheels a few inches above the runway until eventual
touchdown. Flare cues are primarily dependent on the angle at which the pilot’s central vision intersects the ground (or runway) ahead
and slightly to the side. Proper depth perception is a factor in a successful flare, but the visual cues used most are those related to changes
in runway or terrain perspective and to changes in the size and texture of familiar objects near the landing area. The pilot should focus
direct central vision at a shallow downward angle from 10° to 15° relative to the runway as the round out/flare is initiated. [Figure 9-9]
When using this steady viewing angle, the point of visual interception with the runway appears progressively closer as the airplane
loses altitude. This rate of closure is an important visual cue in assessing the rate of altitude loss. Conversely, movement of the visual
interception point further down the runway indicates an increase in altitude and means that the pitch angle was increased too rapidly
during the flare. Location of the visual interception point in conjunction with assessment of flow velocity of nearby off-runway terrain,
as well as the similarity of appearance of height above the runway ahead of the airplane (in comparison to the way it looked when the
airplane was taxied prior to takeoff), is also used to judge when the wheels are just a few inches above the runway.
Figure 9-9. To obtain necessary visual cues, the pilot should look toward the runway at a shallow angle.
Round Out (Flare)
The round out is a slow, smooth transition from a normal approach attitude to a landing attitude, gradually rounding out the flightpath
to one that is parallel to and a few inches above the runway. When the airplane approaches 10 to 20 feet above the ground in a normal
descent, the round out or flare is started. Back-elevator pressure is gradually applied to slowly increase the pitch attitude and AOA.
[Figure 9-10] The AOA is increased at a rate that allows the airplane to continue settling slowly as forward speed decreases. This is a
continuous process until the airplane touches down on the ground.
Figure 9-10. Changing angle of attack during round out.
When the AOA is increased, the lift is momentarily increased and this decreases the rate of descent. Since power normally is reduced
to idle during the round out, the airspeed also gradually decreases. This causes lift to decrease again and necessitates raising the nose
and further increasing the AOA. During the round out, the airspeed is decreased to touchdown speed while the lift is controlled so the
airplane settles gently onto the landing surface. The round out is executed at a rate such that the proper landing attitude and the proper
touchdown airspeed are attained simultaneously just as the wheels contact the landing surface.
The rate at which the round out is executed depends on the airplane’s height above the ground, the rate of descent, and the pitch attitude.
A round out started excessively high needs to be executed more slowly than one started from a lower height. The round out rate should
also be proportional to the rate of closure with the ground. When the airplane appears to be descending very slowly, the increase in pitch
attitude should be made at a correspondingly slow rate.
The pitch attitude of the airplane in a full-flap approach is considerably lower than in a no-flap approach. To attain the proper landing
attitude before touching down, the nose needs to travel through a greater pitch change when flaps are fully extended. Since the round
out is usually started at approximately the same height above the ground regardless of the degree of flaps used, the pitch attitude should
be increased at a faster rate when full flaps are used. However, the round out should still be executed at a rate that takes the airplane’s
downward motion into account.