Once the actual process of rounding out is started, the pilot should not push the elevator control forward. If too much back-elevator
pressure was exerted, this pressure is either slightly relaxed or held constant, depending on the degree of the error. In some cases, it may
be necessary to advance the throttle slightly to prevent an excessive rate of sink or a stall, either of which results in a hard, drop-in type
landing.
It is recommended that a pilot form the habit of keeping one hand on the throttle throughout the approach and landing should a sudden
and unexpected hazardous situation require an immediate application of power.
Touchdown
The touchdown is the gentle settling of the airplane onto the landing surface. The round out and touchdown are normally made with
the engine idling. During the round out, the airspeed decays such that the airplane touches down on the main gear at or just above the
approximate stalling speed. As the airplane settles, proper landing attitude is attained by application of whatever back-elevator pressure
is necessary.
Some pilots try to force or fly the airplane onto the ground without establishing proper landing attitude. The airplane should never be
flown onto the runway with excessive speed. A common technique to making a smooth touchdown is to actually focus on holding the
wheels of the aircraft a few inches off the ground as long as possible using the elevators while the power is smoothly reduced to idle. In
most cases, when the wheels are within 2 or 3 feet of the ground, the airplane is still settling too fast for a gentle touchdown. Therefore,
this descent is retarded by increasing back-elevator pressure. Since the airplane is already close to its stalling speed and is settling, this
added back-elevator pressure only slows the settling instead of stopping it. At the same time, it results in the airplane touching the ground
in the proper landing attitude and the main wheels touching down first so that little or no weight is on the nose-wheel. [Figure 9-11]
Figure 9-11. A well-executed round out results in attaining the proper landing attitude.
After the main wheels make initial contact with the ground, back-elevator pressure is held to maintain a positive AOA for aerodynamic
braking and to hold the nose-wheel off the ground as the airplane decelerates. The pilot should be certain not to inadvertently have brake
pressure engaged as touchdown occurs. Early use of brakes can result in a sudden drop in the nose and a loss of aerodynamic braking. As
the airplane’s momentum decreases, back-elevator pressure is gradually relaxed to allow the nose-wheel to gently settle onto the runway.
This permits steering if the airplane has a steerable nose-wheel. At the same time, it decreases the AOA and reduces lift on the wings to
prevent floating or skipping and allows the full weight of the airplane to rest on the wheels for better mechanical braking action. As the
airplane slows, the mechanical braking becomes more effective.
It is extremely important that the touchdown occur with the airplane’s longitudinal axis exactly parallel to the direction in which the
airplane is moving along the runway. Failure to accomplish this imposes severe side loads on the landing gear. To avoid these side
stresses, the pilot should not allow the airplane to touch down while turned into the wind or drifting.
After-Landing Roll
The landing process should never be considered complete until the airplane decelerates to the normal taxi speed during the landing roll or
has been brought to a complete stop when clear of the landing area. Accidents may occur as a result of pilots abandoning their vigilance
and failing to maintain positive control after getting the airplane on the ground.
A pilot should be alert for directional control difficulties immediately upon and after touchdown due to the ground friction on the wheels.
Loss of directional control may lead to an aggravated, uncontrolled, tight turn on the ground, or a ground loop. The combination of
centrifugal force acting on the center of gravity (CG) and ground friction of the main wheels resisting it during the ground loop may
cause the airplane to tip or lean enough for the outside wingtip to contact the ground. This imposes a sideward force that could collapse
the landing gear.
The rudder serves the same purpose on the ground as it does in the air—it controls the yawing of the airplane. The effectiveness of the
rudder is dependent on the airflow, which depends on the speed of the airplane. As the speed decreases and the nose-wheel has been
lowered to the ground, the steerable nose provides more positive directional control.
The brakes of an airplane serve the same primary purpose as the brakes of an automobile—to reduce speed on the ground. In airplanes,
they are also used as an aid in directional control when more positive control is required than could be obtained with rudder or nose-
wheel steering alone.
To use brakes, on an airplane equipped with toe brakes, the pilot slides the toes or feet up from the rudder pedals to the brake pedals. If
rudder pressure is being held at the time braking action is needed, the pilot should not release that pressure as the feet or toes are being
slid up to the brake pedals because control may be lost before brakes can be applied.
Putting maximum weight on the wheels after touchdown is an important factor in obtaining optimum braking performance. During
the early part of rollout, some lift continues to be generated by the wing. After touchdown, the nose-wheel is lowered to the runway
to maintain directional control. During deceleration, applying brakes may cause the nose to pitch down and some weight to transfer to
the nose-wheel from the main wheels. This does not aid in braking action, so back pressure is applied to the controls without lifting the
nose-wheel off the runway. This enables directional control while keeping weight on the main wheels.
Careful application of the brakes is initiated after the nose-wheel is on the ground and directional control is established. Maximum brake
effectiveness is just short of the point where skidding occurs. If the brakes are applied so hard that skidding takes place, braking becomes
ineffective. Skidding is stopped by releasing the brake pressure. Braking effectiveness is not enhanced by alternately applying, releasing,
and reapplying brake pressure. The brakes are applied firmly and smoothly as necessary.
During the ground roll, the airplane’s direction of movement can be changed by carefully applying pressure on one brake or uneven
pressures on each brake in the desired direction. Caution must be exercised when applying brakes to avoid over-controlling.
The ailerons serve the same purpose on the ground as they do in the air—they change the lift and drag components of the wings. During
the after-landing roll, they are used to keep the wings level in much the same way they are used in flight. If a wing starts to rise, aileron
control is applied toward that wing to lower it. The amount required depends on speed because as the forward speed of the airplane
decreases, the ailerons become less effective. Procedures for using ailerons in crosswind conditions are explained in the “Crosswind
Approach and Landing” section of this chapter.
Once the airplane has slowed sufficiently and has turned onto the taxiway and stopped, the pilot performs the after-landing checklist.
Many accidents have occurred as a result of the pilot unintentionally operating the landing gear control and retracting the gear instead
of the flap control when the airplane was still rolling. The habit of positively identifying both of these controls, before actuating them,
should be formed from the very beginning of flight training and continued in all future flying activities. If available runway permits, the
speed of the airplane is allowed to dissipate in a normal manner.
Common Errors
Common errors in the performance of normal approaches and landings are:
1. Failure to complete the landing checklist in a timely manner.
2. Inadequate wind drift correction on the base leg.
3. An overshooting, undershooting, too steep, or too shallow a turn onto final approach.
4. A skidding turn from base leg to final approach as a result of overshooting/inadequate wind drift correction.
5. Poor coordination during turn from base to final approach.
6. Unstable approach.
7. Failure to adequately compensate for flap extension.
8. Poor trim technique on final approach.
9. Attempting to maintain altitude or reach the runway using elevator alone.
10. Focusing too close to the airplane resulting in a too high round out.
11. Focusing too far from the airplane resulting in a too low round out.
12. Touching down prior to attaining proper landing attitude.
13. Failure to hold sufficient back-elevator pressure after touchdown.
14. Excessive braking after touchdown.
15. Loss of aircraft control during touchdown and rollout.
Go-Arounds (Rejected Landings)
A go-around is a normal maneuver that is used when approach and landing parameters deviate from expectations or when it is hazardous
to continue. Situations such as air traffic control (ATC) requirements, unexpected appearance of hazards on the runway, overtaking
another airplane, wind shear, wake turbulence, mechanical failure, or an unstable approach are all reasons to discontinue a landing
approach. Like any other normal maneuver, the go-around should be practiced and perfected. The flight instructor should emphasize
early on, and the pilot should understand, that any approach or landing may result in a go-around. The assumption that an aborted landing
is invariably the consequence of a poor approach, which in turn is due to insufficient experience or skill, is a fallacy.
Although the need to discontinue a landing may arise at any point in the landing process, the most critical go-around is one started when
very close to the ground. The go-around maneuver is not inherently dangerous in itself. It becomes dangerous only when delayed unduly
or executed improperly. Delay in initiating the go-around normally stems from two sources:
1. Landing expectancy or set—the anticipatory belief that conditions are not as threatening as they are and that the approach is
sure to terminate with a safe landing.
2. Pride—the mistaken belief that the act of going around is an admission of failure—failure to execute the approach properly.
The proper execution of a go-around maneuver includes three cardinal principles:
1. Power
2. Attitude
3. Configuration
Power
Power is the pilot’s first concern. The instant a pilot decides to go around, full or maximum allowable takeoff power should be applied
smoothly, without hesitation, and held until flying speed and controllability are restored. An airplane that is settling toward the ground
has inertia that needs to be overcome, and sufficient power is needed to stop the descent. The application of power is smooth, as well as
positive. Abrupt movements of the throttle in some airplanes cause the engine to falter. Carburetor heat is turned off to obtain maximum
power, as applicable.
Attitude
A pilot executing a go-around needs to accept the fact that an airplane cannot fly below stall speed, and it cannot climb below minimum
power required speed. The pilot should resist any impulse to pitch-up for a climb if airspeed is insufficient. In some circumstances, it
may be desirable to lower the nose briefly to gain airspeed and not be on the backside of the power curve.
At the time a pilot decides to go around, a trim setting for low airspeed is in place. The sudden addition of power tends to raise the
airplane’s nose and causes left yaw. Allowing the nose to rise too early could result in an unrecoverable stall when the go-around occurs
at a low altitude. The pilot should anticipate the need for considerable forward elevator pressure to hold the nose level or in a safe
climb attitude. The pilot applies sufficient right rudder pressure to counteract torque and P-factor. Trim helps to relieve adverse control
pressures and assists in maintaining a proper pitch attitude. After attaining the appropriate airspeed and adjusting pitch attitude for a
climb, the pilot should “rough trim” the airplane to relieve any adverse control pressures. More precise trim adjustments can be made
when flight conditions have stabilized. On airplanes that produce high control pressures when using maximum power on go-arounds, the
pilot should use caution when reaching for the flap handle. Airplane control is the first consideration during this high-workload phase.
Configuration
After establishing the proper climb attitude and power settings, the pilot's next concern is flap retraction. After the descent has been
stopped, the landing flaps are partially retracted or placed in the takeoff position as recommended by the manufacturer. Depending on the
airplane’s altitude and airspeed, it is wise to retract the flaps intermittently in small increments to allow time for the airplane to accelerate
progressively as they are being raised. A sudden and complete retraction of the flaps could cause a loss of lift resulting in the airplane
settling into the ground. [Figure 9-12]
Figure 9-12. Go-around procedure.
Unless otherwise specified in the AFM/POH, it is generally recommended that the flaps be retracted (at least partially) before retracting
the landing gear for two reasons. First, on most airplanes full flaps produce more drag than the landing gear; and second, in case the
airplane inadvertently touches down as the go-around is initiated, it is desirable to have the landing gear in the down-and-locked position.
After a positive rate of climb is established, the landing gear is retracted.
The landing gear is retracted only after the initial or rough trim is accomplished and when it is certain the airplane will remain airborne.
During the initial part of an extremely low go-around, it is possible for the airplane to settle onto the runway and bounce. This situation
is not particularly dangerous provided the airplane is kept straight and a constant, safe pitch attitude is maintained. With the application
of power, the airplane attains a safe flying speed rapidly and the advanced power cushions any secondary touchdown.
Ground Effect
Ground effect is a factor in every landing and every takeoff in fixed-wing airplanes. Ground effect can also be an important factor in go-
arounds. If the go-around is made close to the ground, the airplane may be in the ground effect area. Pilots are often lulled into a sense of
false security by the apparent “cushion of air” under the wings that initially assists in the transition from an approach descent to a climb.
This “cushion of air,” however, is imaginary. The apparent increase in airplane performance is, in fact, due to a reduction in induced
drag in the ground effect area. It is “borrowed” performance that is repaid when the airplane climbs out of the ground effect area. The
pilot needs to factor in ground effect when initiating a go-around close to the ground. An attempt to climb prematurely may result in the
airplane not being able to climb or even maintain altitude at full power.
Common Errors
Common errors in the performance of go-arounds (rejected landings) are:
1. Failure to recognize a condition that warrants a rejected landing.
2. Indecision.
3. Delay in initiating a go-around.
4. Failure to apply maximum allowable power in a timely manner.
5. Abrupt power application.
6. Improper pitch attitude.
7. Failure to configure the airplane appropriately.
8. Attempting to climb out of ground effect prematurely.
9. Failure to adequately compensate for torque/P factor.
10. Loss of aircraft control.
Intentional Slips
A slip occurs when the bank angle of an airplane is too steep for the existing rate of turn. Unintentional slips are most often the result
of uncoordinated rudder/aileron application. Intentional slips, however, are used to dissipate altitude without increasing airspeed and/
or to adjust airplane ground track during a crosswind. Intentional slips are especially useful in forced landings and in situations where
obstacles need to be cleared during approaches to confined areas. A slip can also be used as a means of rapidly reducing airspeed in
situations where wing flaps are inoperative or not installed.
A slip is a combination of forward movement and sideward (with respect to the longitudinal axis of the airplane) movement, the lateral
axis being inclined and the sideward movement being toward the low end of this axis (low wing). An airplane in a slip is in fact flying
sideways through the air even though it may appear to be going straight over the ground. This results in a change in the direction that
the relative wind strikes the airplane. Slips are characterized by a marked increase in drag and corresponding decrease in airplane climb,
cruise, and glide performance. Because the airplane is banked, the vertical component of lift is reduced allowing for an airplane in a slip
to descend rapidly without an increase in airspeed.
Most airplanes exhibit the characteristic of positive static directional stability and, therefore, have a natural tendency to compensate for
slipping. An intentional slip usually requires deliberate cross-controlling of ailerons and rudder throughout the maneuver.
There are two types of intentional slips: sideslip and forward slips. Sideslips are frequently used when landing with a crosswind to keep
the aircraft aligned with the runway centerline. A sideslip is entered by lowering a wing and applying just enough opposite rudder to
prevent a turn. In a sideslip, the airplane’s longitudinal axis remains parallel to the original flightpath, but the airplane no longer flies
straight ahead. Instead, the horizontal component of lift forces the airplane also to move somewhat sideways toward the low wing.
[Figure 9-13] The amount of slip, and therefore the rate of sideward movement, is determined by the bank angle. The steeper the bank,
the greater the degree of slip. As bank angle is increased, additional opposite rudder is required to prevent turning.
Figure 9-13. Sideslip.
A forward slip is used to dissipate altitude and increase descent rate without increasing airspeed. In a forward slip, the airplane’s direction
of motion continues the same as before the slip was begun. Assuming the airplane is originally in straight coordinated flight, the wing on
one side is lowered by use of the ailerons. Simultaneously, sufficient opposite rudder is used to yaw the airplane’s nose in the opposite
direction such that the airplane remains on its original flightpath. However, the nose of the airplane will no longer point in the direction
of flightpath. [Figure 9-14] In a forward slip, the amount of slip, and therefore the sink rate, is determined by the bank angle. The steeper
the bank, the steeper the descent. In order to use the maneuver to lose altitude, power is normally reduced to idle. The pilot controls
airspeed using elevator control. When a crosswind is present, the pilot should lower the upwind wing such that the airplane is banked
into the crosswind since slipping into the wind makes it easier to remain on the original flightpath.
In most light airplanes, the steepness of a slip is limited by the amount of rudder travel available. In both sideslips and forward slips, the
point may be reached where full rudder is required to maintain heading even though the ailerons are capable of further steepening the
bank angle. This is the practical slip limit because any additional bank would cause the airplane to turn even though full opposite rudder
is being applied. If there is a need to descend more rapidly, even though the practical slip limit has been reached, lowering the nose not
only increases the sink rate but also increases airspeed. The increase in airspeed increases rudder effectiveness permitting a steeper slip.
Conversely, when the nose is raised, rudder effectiveness decreases and the bank angle should be reduced.
Discontinuing a slip is accomplished by leveling the wings and simultaneously releasing the rudder pressure while readjusting the pitch
attitude to the normal glide attitude. If the pressure on the rudder is released abruptly, the nose swings too quickly into line and the
airplane tends to acquire excess speed. Because of the location of the pitot tube and static vents, airspeed indicators in some airplanes may
have considerable error when the airplane is in a slip. The pilot needs to be aware of this possibility and recognize a properly performed
slip by the attitude of the airplane, the sound of the airflow, and the feel of the flight controls. Unlike skids, however, if an airplane in a
slip is made to stall, it displays very little of the yawing tendency that causes a skidding stall to develop into a spin. The airplane in a slip
may do little more than tend to roll into a wings-level attitude.
Note that some airplanes have limitations regarding slips. In some cases slips are limited in duration or by fuel quantity. These limitations
are meant to preclude fuel starvation caused when fuel is forced to one side of a tank in uncoordinated flight. If a forward slip is being
used to reach a landing area in an actual engine-out emergency, the time limitation or fuel limitation is irrelevant (unless a prolonged slip
caused the engine issue). For aerodynamic reasons, there may also be recommendations or limitations related to slips with flaps extended.
Consult the manufacturer's AFM/POH for specific airplane information.
Figure 9-14. Forward slip.
Some pilots try to avoid using forward slips. An approach with flaps allows for coordinated and more familiar flight orientation, while
the sideways force on the occupants of the aircraft during a forward slip may seem uncomfortable. However, in a real emergency that
involves engine failure, the ability to use a forward slip provides a pilot with a technique contributing to a better outcome. In that
situation, a pilot may initiate a descent using a forward slip much more quickly than by deploying flaps. To reduce the descent, the pilot
can remove the slip without penalty. On the other hand, retracting flaps on an approach could lead to an unwanted loss of altitude. Even
with full rudder displacement during a forward slip, the pilot can adjust to the left and right of the intended ground track by increasing
and decreasing aileron deflection. The value of the maneuver explains its inclusion as a task in the Private Pilot Airman Certification
Standards (ACS).
Forward Slip to a Landing
When demonstrating a forward slip to a landing in an airport traffic pattern, the pilot plans the descent such that a forward slip may be
used on final approach. Flaps usually remain retracted, and using a forward slip on downwind or base may be a necessary part of the
maneuver. When abeam the landing point on the downwind leg, the pilot initiates a descent by reducing power to idle. If an insufficient
rate of descent occurs on downwind, the pilot uses a forward slip to increase the rate of descent. The pilot should make a coordinated
turn to base. At this point, ongoing evaluation of height takes place. If the airplane is high on base, continued forward slip should occur.
However, the pilot should make a coordinated turn to line up with the final approach course. Once established on a final approach, the
height above ground should be sufficient to allow the pilot to use a forward slip and establish a suitable approach path to the runway
aiming point. At the appropriate time, when the round out begins, the pilot removes the forward slip and transitions to a normal landing.
Common Errors
Common errors with forward slips to a landing:
1. Incorrect pitch adjustments that result in poor airspeed control.
2. Reacting to erroneous airspeed indications.
3. Using excess power while trying to lose altitude.
4. A slip in the same direction as any crosswind.
5. Poor glidepath control.
6. Late transition to a sideslip during landing with crosswinds.
7. Landing without the longitudinal axis parallel to runway.
8. Landing off the centerline.
Crosswind Approach and Landing
Most runways or landing areas are such that landings need to be made while the wind is blowing at an angle to the runway rather
than parallel to the landing direction. All pilots should be prepared to manage a crosswind situation when it arises. Many of the same
basic principles and factors involved in a normal approach and landing apply to a crosswind approach and landing; therefore, only the
additional procedures required for correcting for wind drift are discussed here.
Crosswind landings are a little more difficult to perform than crosswind takeoffs, mainly due to different inputs involved in maintaining
accurate control of the airplane while its speed is decreasing rather than increasing as on takeoff.
There are two usual methods of accomplishing a crosswind approach and landing—the crab method and the wing-low (sideslip) method.
Although the crab method may be easier for the pilot to maintain during final approach, it requires judgment and precise timing when
removing the crab immediately prior to touchdown. The wing-low method is recommended in most cases, although a combination of
both methods may be used. While current testing standards allow for either method, pilots should learn to do both.
Crosswind Final Approach
When using the crab method, the pilot makes a coordinated turn to establish a heading (crab) toward the wind. The selected heading
should align the airplane’s wings-level ground track with the centerline of the runway. The pilot makes small heading corrections, if
needed, to maintain alignment with the runway. [Figure 9-15] The appropriate crab angle is maintained until just prior to touchdown,
when the pilot uses rudder control to align the longitudinal axis of the airplane with the runway to avoid sideward contact of the wheels
with the runway. A change in alignment made too early or too late results in a side load. If a long final approach is being flown, one option
is to use the crab method initially and smoothly transition to the wing-low method before the round out is started.
Figure 9-15. Crabbed approach.
While the wing-low (sideslip) method also compensates for a crosswind from any angle, it keeps the airplane’s ground track and
longitudinal axis aligned with the runway centerline throughout the final approach, round out, touchdown, and after-landing roll. This
prevents the airplane from touching down in a sideward motion and imposing damaging side loads on the landing gear. When first
experienced, it may seem odd to land while holding a bank angle. Although some pilots state that it appears the upwind wingtip will
strike the ground, this is not the case. This method sets up the crosswind correction well before touchdown, does not require a heading
change at the moment before touchdown, and allows the pilot to exercise smooth and continuous control. Pilots using this technique use
precise airplane control as changes in control pressure occur near the ground, on short final, and while over the runway.
To use the wing-low method, the pilot first uses rudder to align and maintain the airplane’s heading with the runway direction. Since the
airplane is now exposed to an uncorrected crosswind, the airplane will begin to drift. Note the rate and direction of drift, and oppose it
using ailerons resulting in just enough bank to cancel the drift. [Figure 9-16] Varying the amount of bank allows the pilot to drift either to
the left or to the right, and the pilot adjusts control pressures as needed to intercept and maintain the runway centerline. If the crosswind
changes, the sideslip is adjusted to keep the airplane in line with the center of the runway. [Figure 9-17]
Figure 9-16. Sideslip approach.