Short-Field Takeoff and Climb
The short-field takeoff and climb differs from the normal takeoff and climb in the airspeeds and initial climb profile. Some
AFM/POHs give separate short-field takeoff procedures and performance charts that recommend specific flap settings and airspeeds.
Other AFM/POHs do not provide separate short-field procedures. In the absence of such specific procedures, the airplane should be
operated only as recommended in the AFM/POH. No operations should be conducted contrary to the recommendations in the
AFM/POH.
On short-field takeoffs in general, just after rotation and lift-off, the airplane should be allowed to accelerate to V X, making the initial
climb over obstacles at VX and transitioning to VY as obstacles are cleared. [Figure 13-8]
Figure 13-8. Short-field takeoff and climb
When partial flaps are recommended for short-field takeoffs, many light-twins have a strong tendency to become airborne prior to
VMC plus 5 knots. Attempting to prevent premature lift-off with forward elevator pressure results in wheel barrowing. To prevent
this, allow the airplane to become airborne, but only a few inches above the runway. The pilot should be prepared to promptly abort
the takeoff and land in the event of engine failure on takeoff with landing gear and flaps extended at airspeeds below VX.
Engine failure on takeoff, particularly with obstructions, is compounded by the low airspeeds and steep climb attitudes utilized in
short-field takeoffs. V X and VXSE are often perilously close to V MC, leaving scant margin for error in the event of engine failure as
VXSE is assumed. If flaps were used for takeoff, the engine failure situation becomes even more critical due to the additional drag
incurred. If V X is less than 5 knots higher than V MC, give strong consideration to reducing useful load or using another runway in
order to increase the takeoff margins so that a short-field technique is not required.
Rejected Takeoff
A takeoff can be rejected for the same reasons a takeoff in a single-engine airplane would be rejected. Once the decision to reject a
takeoff is made, the pilot should promptly close both throttles and maintain directional control with the rudder, nose-wheel steering,
and brakes. Aggressive use of rudder, nose-wheel steering, and brakes may be required to keep the airplane on the runway,
particularly if an engine failure is not immediately recognized and accompanied by prompt closure of both throttles. However, the
primary objective is not necessarily to stop the airplane in the shortest distance, but to maintain control of the airplane as it
decelerates. In some situations, it may be preferable to continue into the overrun area under control, rather than risk directional
control loss, landing gear collapse, or tire/brake failure in an attempt to stop the airplane in the shortest possible distance.
Level Off and Cruise
Upon leveling off at cruising altitude, the pilot should allow the airplane to accelerate at climb power until cruising airspeed is
achieved, and then cruise power and rpm should be set. To extract the maximum cruise performance from any airplane, the power
setting tables provided by the manufacturer should be closely followed. If the cylinder head and oil temperatures are within their
normal ranges, the cowl flaps may be closed. When the engine temperatures have stabilized, the mixtures may be leaned per
AFM/POH recommendations. The remainder of the cruise checklist should be completed by this point.
Fu el management in multiengine airplanes is often more complex than in single-engine airplanes. Depending upon system design, the
pilot may need to select between main tanks and auxiliary tanks or even employ fuel transfer from one tank to another. In complex
fuel systems, limitations are often found restricting the use of some tanks to level flight only or requiring a reserve of fuel in the main
tanks for descent and landing. Electric fuel pump operation can also vary widely among different models, particularly during tank
switching or fuel transfer. Some fuel pumps are to be on for takeoff and landing; others are to be off. There is simply no substitute for
thorough systems and AFM/POH knowledge when operating complex aircraft.
Slow Flight
There is nothing unusual about maneuvering during slow flight in a multiengine airplane. Slow flight may be conducted in straight -
and-level flight, turns, climbs, or descents. It can also be conducted in the clean configuration, landing configuration, or at any other
combination of landing gear and flaps. Slow flight in a multiengine airplane should be conducted so the maneuver can be completed
no lower than 3,000 feet AGL or higher if recommended by the manufacturer. In all cases, practicing slow flight should be conducted
at an adequate height above the ground for recovery should the airplane inadvertently stall.
Pilots should closely monitor cylinder head and oil temperatures during slow flight. Some high performance multiengine airplanes
tend to heat up fairly quickly under some conditions of slow flight, particularly in the landing configuration. Simulated engine failures
should not be conducted during slow flight. The airplane will be well below V SSE and very close to V MC. Stability, stall warning, or
stall avoidance devices should not be disabled while maneuvering during slow flight.
Spin Awareness and Stalls
No multiengine airplane is approved for spins, and their spin recovery characteristics are generally very poor. It is therefore prudent to
practice spin avoidance and maintain a high awareness of situations that can result in an inadvertent spin.
Spin Awareness
In order to spin any airplane, a stalled condition needs to exist. At the stall, the presence or introduction of a yawing moment can
initiate spin entry. In a multiengine airplane, the yawing moment may be generated by rudder input or asymmetrical thrust. It follows,
then, that spin awareness be at its greatest during V MC demonstrations, stall practice, slow flight, or any condition of high
asymmetrical thrust, particularly at low speed/high AOA. Single-engine stalls are not part of any multiengine training curriculum.
No engine failure should ever be introduced below safe, intentional one-engine inoperative speed (V SSE). If no V SSE is published, use
VYSE. Other than training situations, the multiengine airplane is only operated below V SSE for mere seconds just after lift-off or during
the last few dozen feet of altitude in preparation for landing.
For spin avoidance when practicing engine failures, the flight instructor should pay strict attention to the maintenance of proper
airspeed and bank angle as the learner executes the appropriate procedure. The instructor should also be particularly alert during stall
and slow flight practice. While flying with a center-o f-gravity closer to the forward limit provides better stall and spin avoidance
characteristics, it does not eliminate the hazard.
When performing a V MC demonstration, the instructor should also be alert for any sign of an impending stall. The learner may be
highly focused on the directional control aspect of the maneuver to the extent that impending stall indications go unnoticed. If a V MC
demonstration cannot be accomplished under existing conditions of density altitude, the instructor may, for training purposes, utilize a
rudder blocking technique.
As very few twins have ever been spin-tested (none are required to), the recommended spin recovery techniques are based only on the
best information available. The departure from controlled flight may be quite abrupt and possibly disorienting. The direction of an
upright spin can be confirmed from the turn needle or the symbolic airplane of the turn coordinator, if necessary. Do not rely on the
ball position or other instruments.
If a spin is entered, most manufacturers recommend immediately retarding both throttles to idle, applying full rudder opposite the
direction of rotation, and applying full forward elevator/stabilator pressure (with ailerons neutral). These actions should be taken as
near simultaneously as possible. The controls should then be held in that position until the spin has stopped. At that point adjust
rudder pressure, back elevator pressure, and power as necessary to return to the desired flight path. Pilots should be aware that a spin
recovery will take considerable altitude; therefore, it is critical that corrective action be taken immediately.
Stall Training
It is recommended that stalls be practiced at an altitude that allows recovery no lower than 3,000 feet AGL for multiengine airplanes,
or higher if recommended by the AFM/POH. Losing altitude during recovery from a stall is to be expected.
Stall characteristics vary among multiengine airplanes just as they do with single-engine airplanes, and therefore, a pilot should be
familiar with them. Yet, the most important stall recovery step in a multiengine airplane is the same as it is in all airplanes: reduce the
angle of attack (AOA). For reference, the stall recovery procedure described in Chapter 5 is included in Figure 13-9. Following a
reduction in the AOA and the stall warning being eliminated, the wings should be rolled level and power added as needed. Immediate
full application of power in a stalled condition has an associated risk due to the possibility of asymmetric thrust. In addition, single-
engine stalls, or stalls with significantly more power on one engine than the other, should not be attempted due to the likelihood of a
departure from controlled flight and possible spin entry. Similarly, simulated engine failures should not be performed during stall
entry and recovery.
Figure 13-9. Stall recovery procedure.
Power-Off Approach to Stall (Approach and Landing)
A power-off approach to stall is trained and checked to simulate problematic approach and landing scenarios. A power-off approach
to stall may be performed with wings level, or from shallow turns (up to 20 degrees of bank). To initiate a power-off approach to stall
maneuver, the area surrounding the airplane should first be cleared for possible traffic. The airplane should then be slowed and
configured for an approach and landing. A stabilized descent should be established (approximately 500 fpm) and trim adjusted. A
turn should be initiated at this point, if desired. The pilot should then smoothly increase the AOA to induce a stall warning. Power is
reduced further during this phase, and trimming should cease at speeds slower than takeoff.
When the airplane reaches the stall warning (e.g., aural alert, buffet, etc.), the recovery is accomplished by first reducing the AOA
until the stall warning is eliminated. The pilot then rolls the wings level with coordinated use of the rudder and smoothly
applies power as required. The airplane should be accelerated to V X (if simulated obstacles are present) or V Y during recovery and
climb. Considerable forward elevator/stabilator pressure will be required after the stall recovery as the airplane accelerates to V X
or VY. Appropriate trim input should be anticipated. The flap setting should be reduced from full to approach, or as recommended
by the manufacturer. Then, with a positive rate of climb, the landing gear is selected up. The remaining flaps are then retracted as a
positive rate-of-climb continues.
Power-On Approach to Stall (Takeoff and Departure)
A power-on approach to stall is trained and checked to simulate problematic takeoff scenarios. A power-on approach to stall may be
performed from straight-and-level flight or from shallow and medium banked turns (up to 20 degrees of bank). To initiate a power-on
approach to stall maneuver, the area surrounding the airplane should always be cleared to look for potential traffic. The airplane is
slowed to the manufacturer’s recommended lift-off speed. The airplane should be configured in the takeoff configuration. Trim
should be adjusted for this speed. Engine power is then increased to that recommended in the AFM/POH for the practice of power-on
approach to stall. In the absence of a recommended setting, use approximately 65 percent of maximum available power. Begin a turn,
if desired, while increasing AOA to induce a stall warning (e.g., aural alert, buffet, etc.). Other specified (reduced) power settings
may be used to simulate performance at higher gross weights and density altitudes.
When the airplane reaches the stall warning, the recovery is made first by reducing the AOA until the stall warning is eliminated. The
pilot then rolls the wings level with coordinated use of the rudder and applying power as needed. However, if simulating limited
power available for high gross weight and density altitude situations, the power during the recovery should be limited to tha t
specified. The landing gear should be retracted when a positive rate of climb is attained, and flaps retracted, if flaps were set
for takeoff. The target airspeed on recovery is V X if (simulated) obstructions are present, or V Y. The pilot should anticipate the need
for nose-down trim as the airplane accelerates to VX or VY after recovery.
ull Stall
It is not recommended that full stalls be practiced unless a qualified flight instructor is present. A power-off or power-on full stall
should only be practiced in a structured lesson with clear learning objectives and cautions discussed. The goals of the training are (a)
to provide the pilots the experience of the handling characteristics and dynamic cues (e.g., buffet, roll off) near and at full stall and (b)
to reinforce the proper application of the stall recovery procedures. Given the associated risk of asymmetric thrust at high angles of
attack and low rudder effectiveness due to low airspeeds, this reinforces the primary step of first lowering the AOA, which allows all
control surfaces to become more effective and allows for roll to be better controlled. Thrust should only be used as needed in the
recovery.
Accelerated Approach to Stall
Accelerated approach to stall should be performed with a bank of approximately 45°, and in no case at a speed greater than the
airplane manufacturer’s recommended airspeed, the specified design maneuvering speed (V A), or operating maneuvering speed
(VO). The pilot should select an entry altitude that will allow completion of the maneuver no lower than 3,000 feet AGL.
The entry method for the maneuver is no different than for a single-engine airplane. Once at an appropriate speed, begin increasing
the back pressure on the elevator while maintaining a coordinated 45° turn. A good speed reduction rate is approximately 3 to 5 knots
per second. Once a stall warning occurs, recover promptly by reducing the AOA until the stall warning stops. Then, roll the wings
level with coordinated rudder and add power as necessary to return to the desired flightpath.
Normal Approach and Landing
Given the higher cruising speed (and frequently altitude) of multiengine airplanes over most single-engine airplanes, the descent
needs to be planned in advance. A hurried, last minute descent with power at or near idle is inefficient and can cause excessive engine
cooling. It may also lead to passenger discomfort, particularly if the airplane is unpressurized. As a rule of thumb, if terrain and
passenger conditions permit, a maximum of a 500 fpm rate of descent should be planned. Pressurized airplanes can plan for higher
descent rates, if desired.
In a descent, some airplanes require a minimum EGT or may have a minimum power setting or cylinder head temperature to
maintain. In any case, combinations of very low manifold pressure and high rpm settings are strongly discouraged by engine
manufacturers. If higher descent rates are necessary, the pilot should consider extending partial flaps or lowering the landing gear
before retarding the power excessively. The descent checklist should be initiated upon leaving cruising altitude and completed before
arrival in the terminal area. Upon arrival in the terminal area, pilots are encouraged to turn on their landing and recognition lights
when operating below 10,000 feet, day or night, and especially when operating within 10 miles of any airport or in conditions of
reduced visibility.
The traffic pattern and approach are typically flown at somewhat higher indicated airspeeds in a multiengine airplane contrasted to
most single-engine airplanes. The pilot may allow for this through an early start on the before-landing checklist. This provides time
for proper planning, spacing, and thinking well ahead of the airplane. Many multiengine airplanes have partial flap extension speeds
above V FE, and partial flaps can be deployed prior to traffic pattern entry. Normally, the landing gear should be selected and
confirmed down when abeam the intended point of landing as the downwind leg is flown. [Figure 13-10]
The FAA recommends a stabilized approach concept. To the greatest extent practical, on final approach and within 500 feet AGL, the
airplane should be on speed, in trim, configured for landing, tracking the extended centerline of the runway, and established in a
constant angle of descent toward an aim point in the touchdown zone. Absent unusual flight conditions, only minor corrections are
required to maintain this approach to the round out and touchdown.
The final approach should be made with power and at a speed recommended by the manufacturer; if a recommended speed is
not furnished, the speed should be no slower than the single-engine best rate-o f-climb speed (V YSE) until short final with the
landing assured, but in no case less than critical engine-out minimum control speed (V MC). Some multiengine pilots prefer to delay
full flap extension to short final with the landing assured. This is an acceptable technique with appropriate experience and familiarity
with the airplane.
In the round out for landing, residual power is gradually reduced to idle. With the higher wing loading of multiengine airpl anes and
with the drag from two windmilling propellers, there is minimal float. Full stall landings are generally undesirable in twins. The
airplane should be held off as with a high performance single-engine model, allowing touchdown of the main wheels prior to a full
stall.
Figure 13-10. Normal two-engine approach and landing.
Under favorable wind and runway conditions, the nose-wheel can be held off for best aerodynamic braking. Even as the nose-wheel is
gently lowered to the runway centerline, continued elevator back pressure greatly assists the wheel brakes in stopping the airplane.
If runway length is critical, or with a strong crosswind, or if the surface is contaminated with water, ice, or snow, it is undesirable to
rely solely on aerodynamic braking after touchdown. The full weight of the airplane should be placed on the wheels as soon as
practicable. The wheel brakes are more effective than aerodynamic braking alone in decelerating the airplane.
Once on the ground, elevator back pressure should be used to place additional weight on the main wheels. When necessary, wing flap
retraction also adds additional weight to the wheels and improves braking effectivity. Flap retraction during the landing rollout is
discouraged, however, unless there is a clear, operational need. It should not be accomplished as routine with each landing.
Some multiengine airplanes, particularly those of the cabin class variety, can be flown through the round out and touchdown with a
small amount of power. This is an acceptable technique to prevent high sink rates and to cushion the touchdown. The pilot should
keep in mind, however, that the primary purpose in landing is to get the airplane down and stopped. This technique should only be
attempted when there is a generous margin of runway length. As propeller blast flows directly over the wings, lift as well as thrust is
produced. The pilot should taxi clear of the runway as soon as speed and safety permit, and then accomplish the after-landing
checklist. Ordinarily, no attempt should be made to retract the wing flaps or perform other checklist duties until the airplane has been
brought to a halt when clear of the active runway. Exceptions to this would be the rare operational needs discussed above, to relieve
the weight from the wings and place it on the wheels. In these cases, AFM/POH guidance should be followed. The pilot should not
indiscriminately reach out for any switch or control on landing rollout. An inadvertent landing gear retraction while meaning to retract
the wing flaps may result.
Crosswind Approach and Landing
The multiengine airplane is often easier to land in a crosswind than a single-engine airplane due to its higher approach and landing
speed. In any event, the principles are no different between singles and twins. Prior to touchdown, the longitudinal axis should be
aligned with the runway centerline to avoid landing gear side loads.
The two primary methods, crab and wing-low, are typically used in conjunction with each other. As soon as the airplane rolls out onto
final approach, the crab angle to track the extended runway centerline is established. This is coordinated flight with adjustments to
heading to compensate for wind drift either left or right. Prior to touchdown, the transition to a sideslip is made with the upwind wing
lowered and opposite rudder applied to prevent a turn. The airplane touches down on the landing gear of the upwind wing first ,
followed by that of the downwind wing, and then the nose gear. Follow-through with the flight controls involves an increasing
application of aileron into the wind until full control deflection is reached.
The point at which the transition from the crab to the sideslip is made is dependent upon pilot familiarity with the airplane and
experience. With high skill and experience levels, the transition can be made during the round out just before touchdown. With lesser
skill and experience levels, the transition is made at increasing distances from the runway. Some multiengine airplanes (as some
single-engine airplanes) have AFM/POH limitations against slips in excess of a certain time period; 30 seconds, for example. This is to
prevent engine power loss from fuel starvation as the fuel in the tank of the lowered wing flows toward the wingtip, away from the
fuel pickup point. This time limit should be observed if the wing-low method is utilized.
Some multiengine pilots prefer to use differential power to assist in crosswind landings. The asymmetrical thrust produces a yawing
moment little different from that produced by the rudder. When the upwind wing is lowered, power on the upwind engine is increased
to prevent the airplane from turning. This alternate technique is completely acceptable, but most pilots feel they can react to changing
wind conditions quicker with rudder and aileron than throttle movement. This is especially true with turbocharged engines where the
throttle response may lag momentarily. The differential power technique should be practiced with an instructor before being
attempted alone.
Short-Field Approach and Landing
The primary elements of a short-field approach and landing do not differ significantly from a normal approach and landing. Many
manufacturers do not publish short-field landing techniques or performance charts in the AFM/POH. In the absence of specific short-
field approach and landing procedures, the airplane should be operated as recommended in the AFM/POH. No operations should be
conducted contrary to the AFM/POH recommendations.
The emphasis in a short-field approach is on configuration (full flaps), a stabilized approach with a constant angle of descent, and
precise airspeed control. As part of a short-field approach and landing procedure, some AFM/POHs recommend a slightly slower
than normal approach airspeed. If no such slower speed is published, use the AFM/POH-recommended normal approach speed.
Full flaps are used to provide the steepest approach angle. If obstacles are present, the approach should be planned so that no drastic
power reductions are required after they are cleared. The power should be smoothly reduced to idle in the round out prior to
touchdown. Pilots should keep in mind that the propeller blast blows over the wings providing some lift in addition to thrust.
Reducing power significantly, just after obstacle clearance, usually results in a sudden, high sink rate that may lead to a hard landing.
After the short-field touchdown, maximum stopping effort is achieved by retracting the wing flaps, adding back pressure to the
elevator/stabilator, and applying heavy braking. However, if the runway length permits, the wing flaps should be left in the extended
position until the airplane has been stopped clear of the runway. There is always a significant risk of retracting the landing gear
instead of the wing flaps when flap retraction is attempted on the landing rollout.
Landing conditions that involve a short field, high winds, or strong crosswinds are just about the only situations where flap retraction
on the landing rollout should be considered. When there is an operational need to retract the flaps just after touchdown, it needs to be
done deliberately with the flap handle positively identified before it is moved.
Go-Around
When the decision to go around is made, the throttles should be advanced to takeoff power and pitch adjusted to arrest the sink rate.
With adequate airspeed, the airplane should be placed in a climb pitch attitude. These actions, which are accomplished sequentially,
arrest the sink rate and place the airplane in the proper attitude for transition to a climb. The initial target airspeed is V Y or VX if
obstructions are present. With sufficient airspeed, the flaps should be retracted from full to an intermediate position and the landing
gear retracted when there is a positive rate of climb and no chance of runway contact. The remaining flaps should then be retracted.
[Figure 13-11]
Figure 13-11. Go-around procedure.
f the go-around w as initiated du e to conflicting traff ic on th e ground or alof t, the pilot should consider maneuvering to th e side to
keep the conflicting traffic in sight. This may involve a slight turn to offset from the runway/landing area.
If the airplane was in trim for the landing approach when the go-around was commenced, it soon requires a great deal of forward
elevator/stabilator pressure as the airplane accelerates away in a climb. The pilot should apply appropriate forward pressure to
maintain the desired pitch attitude. Trim should be commenced immediately. The balked landing checklist should be reviewed as
work load permits.
Flaps should be retracted before the landing gear for two reasons. First, on most airplanes, full flaps produce more drag th an the
extended landing gear. Secondly, the airplane tends to settle somewhat with flap retraction, and the landing gear should be down in
the event of an inadvertent, momentary touchdown.
Many multiengine airplanes have a landing gear retraction speed significantly less than the extension speed. Care should be exercised
during the go-around not to exceed the retraction speed. If the pilot desires to return for a landing, it is essential to re-accomplish the
entire before-landing checklist. An interruption to a pilot’s habit patterns, such as a go -around, is a classic scenario for a subsequent
gear-up landing.
The preceding discussion about performing a go-around assumes that the maneuver was initiated from normal approach speeds or
faster. If the go-around was initiated from a low airspeed, the initial pitch up to a climb attitude should be tempered with the necessity
to maintain adequate flying speed throughout the maneuver. Examples of where this applies include a go-around initiated from the
landing round out or recovery from a bad bounce, as well as a go-around initiated due to an inadvertent approach to a stall. The first
priority is always to maintain control and obtain adequate flying speed. A few moments of level or near level flight may be required
as the airplane accelerates up to climb speed.
Engine Inoperative Flight Principles
There are two main considerations for OEI operations —performance and control. Multiengine pilots learn to operate the airplane for
maximum rate of climb performance at the blue radial indicated airspeed by training to fly without sideslip. Pilots also learn to
recognize and recover from loss of directional control associated with the red radial indicated airspeed by performing a V MC
demonstration. Since the object of a V MC demonstration is not performance, sideslip occurs during the maneuver. Detailed
discussion on both the loss of directional control and maximum OEI climb performance follows.
Derivation of VMC
VMC is a speed established by the manufacturer, published in the AFM/POH, and marked on most airspeed indicators with a red
radial line. A knowledgeable and competent multiengine pilot understands that V MC is not a fixed airspeed under all conditions.
VMC is a fixed airspeed only for the very specific set of circumstances under which it was determined during aircraft certification. In
reality, V MC varies with a variety of factors as outlined below. The V MC noted in practice and demonstration, or in actual OE I
operation, could be less or even greater than the published value, depending on conditions and pilot technique.
Historically, in aircraft certification, V MC is the sea level calibrated airspeed at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made
inoperative, it is possible to maintain control of the airplane with that engine still inoperative and then maintain straight flight at the
same speed with an angle of bank not more than 5°.
The foregoing refers to the determination of V MC under dynamic conditions. This technique is only used by highly experienced test
pilots during aircraft certification. It is unsafe to be attempted outside of these circumstances.
In aircraft certification, there is also a determination of V MC under static, or steady-state conditions. If there is a difference between
the dynamic and static speeds, the higher of the two is published as V MC. The static determination is simply the ability to maintain
straight flight at V MC with a bank angle of not more than 5°. This more closely resembles the V MC demonstration task in the
practical test for a multiengine rating.
The AFM/POH-published VMC is determined with the critical engine inoperative. The critical engine is the engine whose failure had
the most adverse effect on directional control. On twins with each engine rotating in conventional, clockwise rotation as viewed from
the pilot's seat, the critical engine will be the left engine.
Multiengine airplanes are subject to P-factor just as single-engine airplanes are. The descending propeller blade of each engine will
produce greater thrust than the ascending blade when the airplane is operated under power and at positive angles of attack. The
descending propeller blade of the right engine is also a greater distance from the center of gravity, and therefore has a longer moment
arm than the descending propeller blade of the left engine. As a result, failure of the left engine will result in the most asymmetrical
thrust (adverse yaw) as the right engine will be providing the remaining thrust. [Figure 13-12]