Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3C)
Chapter 14: Transition to Tailwheel Airplanes
Introduction
Due to their design and structure, tailwheel airplanes (tailwheels) exhibit operational and handling characteristics different from those
of tricycle-gear airplanes (nose-wheels). [Figure 14-1] A few aircraft, primarily antique and experimental, may have a tailskid instead
of a tailwheel. The same principles discussed in this chapter usually apply to tailskid. In general, tailwheels are less forgiving of pilot
error while in contact with the ground than are nose-wheels. This chapter focuses on the operational differences that occur during
ground operations, takeoffs, and landings.
Figure 14-1. The Piper Super Cub on the left is a popular tailwheel airplane. The airplane on the right is a Mooney M20, which is a
nose-wheel (tricycle gear) airplane.
Although still termed “conventional-gear airplanes,” tailwheel designs are most likely to be encountered today by pilots who have
first learned in nose-wheels. Therefore, tailwheel operations are approached as they appear to a pilot making a transition from nose-
wheel designs.
Landing Gear
The main landing gear forms the principal support of the airplane on the ground. The tailwheel also supports the airplane, but steering
and directional control are its primary functions. With the tailwheel-type airplane, the two main landing gear struts are attached to the
airplane slightly ahead of the airplane’s center of gravity (CG), so that the plane naturally rests in a nose-high attitude on the triangle
created by the main gear and the tailwheel. This arrangement is responsible for the three major handling differences between nose-
wheel and tailwheel airplanes. They center on directional instability, angle of attack (AOA), and crosswind weathervaning tendencies.
Proper usage of the rudder pedals is crucial for directional control while taxiing. Steering with the pedals may be accomplished
through the forces of airflow or propeller slipstream acting on the rudder surface or through a direct mechanical linkage or a
mechanical linkage acting through springs to turn the tailwheel. Initially, the pilot should taxi with the heels of the feet resting on the
floor and the balls of the feet on the bottom of the rudder pedals. The feet should be slid up onto the brake pedals only when it is
necessary to depress the brakes. This permits the simultaneous application of rudder and brake whenever needed. Some models o f
tailwheel airplanes are equipped with heel brakes rather than toe brakes. As in nose-wheel airplanes, brakes are used to slow and stop
the aircraft and to increase turning authority when tailwheel steering inputs prove insufficient. Whenever used, brakes should be
applied smoothly and evenly.
Instability
Because of the relative placement of the main gear and the CG, tailwheel aircraft are inherently unstable on the ground. As taxi turns
are started, the aircraft begins to pivot on one or the other of the main wheels. From that point, with the CG aft of that pivot point, the
forward momentum of the plane acts to continue and even tighten the turn without further steering inputs. Ordinarily, removal of
rudder pressure does not stop a turn that has been started, and it is necessary to apply an opposite input (opposite rudder) to bring the
aircraft back to straight-line travel. For this reason, many tailwheel airplanes are equipped with a centering spring(s) or similar device
that returns the tailwheel to a center position upon relaxation of a rudder pedal input. However, this mechanism may not return the
airplane to a straight line of travel from a tight turn.
If the initial rudder input is maintained after a turn has been started, the turn continues to tighten, an unexpected result for pilots
accustomed to a nose-wheel. In consequence, it is common for pilots making the transition between the two types to experience
difficulty in early taxi attempts. As long as taxi speeds are kept low, however, no serious problems result, and pilots typically adjust
quickly to the technique of using rudder pressure to start a turn, then neutralizing the pedals as the turn continues, and finally using an
opposite pedal input to stop the turn and regain straight-line travel.
Because of this inbuilt instability, the most important lesson that can be taught in tailwheel airplanes is to taxi and make turns at slow
speeds.
Angle of Attack
A second strong contrast to nose-wheel airplanes, tailwheel aircraft make lift while on the ground anytime there is a relative
headwind. The amount of lift obviously depends on the wind speed, but even at slow taxi speeds, the wings and ailerons are d oing
their best to aid in liftoff. This phenomenon requires care and management, especially during the takeoff and landing rolls, and is
again unexpected by nose-wheel pilots making the transition.
Taxiing
On most tailwheel-type airplanes, directional control while taxiing is facilitated by the use of a steerable tailwheel, which operates
along with the rudder. The tailwheel steering mechanism remains engaged when the tailwheel is operated through an arc of about 30°
each side of center. Beyond that limit, the tailwheel breaks free and becomes full swiveling. In full swivel mode, the airplane can be
pivoted within its own length, if desired. While taxiing, the steerable tailwheel should be used for making normal turns and the pilot’s
feet kept off the brake pedals to avoid unnecessary wear on the brakes.
When beginning to taxi, the brakes should be tested immediately for proper operation. This is done by first applying power to start
the airplane moving slowly forward, then retarding the throttle and simultaneously applying pressure smoothly to both brakes. If
braking action is unsatisfactory, the engine should be shut down immediately.
To turn the airplane on the ground, the pilot should apply rudder in the desired direction of turn and use whatever power or brake
necessary to control the taxi speed. At very low taxi speeds, directional response is sluggish as surface friction acting on the tailwheel
inhibits inputs through the steering springs. At normal taxi speeds, rudder inputs alone should be sufficient to start and stop most
turns. During taxi, the AOA built in to the structure gives control placement added importance when compared to nose-wheel models.
When taxiing in a quartering headwind, the upwind wing can easily be lifted by gusting or strong winds unless ailerons are positioned
to “kill” lift on that side (stick held into the wind). This is standard control positioning for both nose-wheel and tailwheel airplanes, so
the difference lies only in the added tailwheel vulnerability created by the fuselage pitch attitude. At the same time, elevator should
usually be held full back to add downward pressure to the tailwheel assembly and improve tailwheel steering response. However, in a
strong quartering headwind a wing could lift, and the elevator may be held closer to neutral.
When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, this fuselage angle reduces the tendency of the wind to lift either wing. Nevertheless, the
basic vulnerability to surface winds common to all tailwheel airplanes makes it essential to be aware of wind direction at all times, so
holding the stick away from the crosswind is good practice (left aileron in a right quartering tailwind).
Elevator positioning in tailwinds is a bit more complex. Standard teaching tends to recommend full forward stick in any degree of
tailwind, arguing that a tailwind striking the elevator when it is deflected full down increases downward pressure on the tailwheel
assembly and increases directional control. Equally important, if the elevator were to remain deflected up, a strong tailwind can get
under the control surface and lift the tail with unfortunate consequences for the propeller and engine.
While stick-forward positioning is essential in strong tailwinds, it is not likely to be an appropriate response when winds are light.
The propeller wash in even lightly-powered airplanes is usually strong enough to overcome the effects of light tailwinds, producing a
net headwind over the tail. This in turn suggests that back stick, not forward, does the most to help with directional contr ol. If in
doubt, it is best to sample the wind as you taxi and position the elevator where it will do the most good.
Weathervaning
Tailwheel airplanes have an exaggerated tendency to weathervane, or turn into the wind, when operated on the ground in crosswinds.
This tendency is greatest when taxiing with a direct crosswind, a factor that makes maintaining directional control more difficult,
sometimes requiring use of the brakes when tailwheel steering alone proves inadequate to counteract the weathervane effect.
Visibility
In the normal nose-high attitude, the engine cowling may be high enough to restrict the pilot’s vision of the area directly ahead of the
airplane while on the ground. Consequently, objects directly ahead are difficult, if not impossible to see. In aircraft that are
completely blind ahead, all taxi movements should be started with a small turn to ensure no other plane or ground vehicle has
positioned itself directly under the nose while the pilot’s attention was distracted with getting ready to takeoff. In taxiing such an
airplane, the pilot should alternately turn the nose from one side to the other (zigzag) or make a series of short S-turns. This should be
done slowly, smoothly, positively, and cautiously.
Directional Control
After absorbing all the information presented to this point, the transitioning pilot may conclude that the best approach to maintaining
directional control is to limit rudder inputs from fear of overcontrolling. Although intuitive, this is an incorrect assumption: the
disadvantages built in to the tailwheel design sometimes require vigorous rudder inputs to maintain or retain directional control. The
best approach is to understand the fact that tailwheel aircraft are not damaged from the use of too much rudder, but rather from rudder
inputs held for too long.
Normal Takeoff Roll
Wing flaps should be lowered prior to takeoff if recommended by the manufacturer. After taxiing onto the runway, the airplane
should be aligned with the intended takeoff direction, and the tailwheel positioned straight or centered. In airplanes equipped with a
locking device, the tailwheel should be locked in the centered position. After releasing the brakes, the throttle should be smoothly and
continuously advanced to takeoff power. The pilot should carefully avoid applying brake pressure during the takeoff roll.
After a brief period of acceleration, positive forward elevator should be applied to smoothly lift the tail. The goal is to achieve a pitch
attitude that improves forward visibility and produces a smooth transition to climbing flight as the aircraft continues to accelerate.
It is important to note that nose-down pitch movement produces left yaw, the result of gyroscopic precession created by the propeller.
The amount of force created by this precession is directly related to the rate the propeller axis is tilted when the tail is raised, so it is
best to avoid an abrupt pitch change. Whether smooth or abrupt, the need to react to this yaw with rudder inputs emphasizes the
increased directional demands common to tailwheel airplanes, a demand likely to be unanticipated by pilots transitioning from nose-
wheel models.
As speed is gained on the runway, the added authority of the elevator naturally continues to pitch the nose forward. During this stage,
the pilot should concentrate on maintaining a constant-pitch attitude by gradually reducing elevator deflection. At the same time,
directional control should be maintained with smooth, prompt, positive rudder corrections. All this activity emphasizes the point that
tailwheel planes start to “fly” long before leaving the runway surface.
Liftoff
When the appropriate pitch attitude is maintained throughout the takeoff roll, liftoff occurs when the AOA and airspeed combine to
produce the necessary lift without any additional “rotation” input. The ideal takeoff attitude requires only minimum pitch adjustments
shortly after the airplane lifts off to attain the desired climb speed.
All modern tailwheel aircraft can be lifted off in the three-point attitude. That is, the AOA with all three wheels on the ground does
not exceed the critical AOA, and the wings will not be stalled. While instructive, this technique results in an unusually high pitch
attitude and an AOA excessively close to stall, both inadvisable circumstances when flying only inches from the ground.
As the airplane leaves the ground, the pilot should continue to maintain straight flight and hold the proper pitch attitude. During
takeoffs in strong, gusty winds, it is advisable to add an extra margin of speed before the airplane is allowed to leave the ground. A
takeoff at the normal takeoff speed may result in a lack of positive control, or a stall, when the airplane encounters a sudden lull in
strong, gusty wind or other turbulent air currents. In this case, the pilot should hold the airplane on the ground longer to attain more
speed, then make a smooth, positive rotation to leave the ground.
Crosswind Takeoff
It is important to establish and maintain proper crosswind corrections prior to liftoff; that is, application of aileron deflection into the
wind to keep the upwind wing from rising and rudder deflection as needed to prevent weathervaning.
Takeoffs made into strong crosswinds are the reason for maintaining a positive AOA (tail-low attitude) while accelerating on the
runway. Because the wings are making lift during the takeoff roll, a strong upwind aileron deflection can bank the airplane into the
wind and provide positive crosswind correction soon after the takeoff roll begins. The remainder of the takeoff roll is then made on
the upwind main wheel while the pilot uses rudder to maintain the alignment of the longitudinal axis with the runway. As the airplane
accelerates, the pilot smoothly decreases the pitch attitude and adjusts aileron and rudder control pressures to maintain the
appropriate crosswind correction. If the pitch attitude remains excessively steep or if it is too flat, crosswind control during the
ground roll becomes more difficult. As the aircraft leaves the runway, the wings can be leveled as appropriate drift correction (crab)
is established.
Short-Field Takeoff
With the exception of flap settings and initial climb speed as recommended by the manufacturer, there is little difference between the
techniques described above for normal takeoffs. After liftoff, the pitch attitude should be adjusted as required for obstacle clearance.
However, note that manufacturers of some airplanes, especially of higher power, recommend a short-field technique with liftoff in a
three-point attitude. Pilots should always review and follow the airplane manufacturer's recommended procedures.
Soft-Field Takeoff
Wing flaps may be lowered prior to starting the takeoff (if recommended by the manufacturer) to provide additional lift and transfer
the airplane’s weight from the wheels to the wings as early as possible. The airplane should be taxied onto the takeoff surface without
stopping on a soft surface since mud or snow might bog the airplane down. The airplane should be kept in continuous motion with
sufficient power while lining up for the takeoff roll. Due to the high power settings, it is usually best to have the elevator full up while
taxiing onto the runway in soft conditions. There is not only the danger of the airplane bogging down, but also a danger of it tipping
up onto its nose.
As the airplane is aligned with the proposed takeoff path, takeoff power is applied smoothly and as rapidly as the powerplant will
accept without faltering. The tail should be kept very low to maintain the inherent positive AOA and to avoid any tendency of the
airplane to nose over as a result of soft spots, tall grass, or deep snow.
When the airplane is held at a nose-high attitude throughout the takeoff run, the wings progressively relieve the wheels of more and
more of the airplane’s weight, thereby minimizing the drag caused by surface irregularities or adhesion. Once airborne, the airplane
should be allowed to accelerate to climb speed in ground effect.
Landing
The difference between nose-wheel and tailwheel airplanes becomes apparent when discussing the touchdown and the period of
deceleration to taxi speed. In the nose-wheel design, touchdown is followed quite naturally by a reduction in pitch attitude to bring the
nose-wheel tire into contact with the runway. This pitch change reduces AOA, removes almost all wing lift, and rapidly transfers
aircraft weight to the tires.
In tailwheel designs, this reduction of AOA and weight transfer are not practical and, as noted in the section on takeoffs, it is rare to
encounter tailwheel planes designed so that the wings are beyond critical AOA in the three-point attitude. In consequence, the
airplane continues to “fly” in the three-point attitude after touchdown, requiring careful attention to heading, roll, and pitch for an
extended period.
Touchdown
Tailwheel airplanes are less forgiving of crosswind landing errors than nose-wheel models. It is important that touchdown occurs with
the airplane’s longitudinal axis parallel to the direction the airplane is moving along the runway. [Figure 14-2] Failure to accomplish
this imposes side loads on the landing gear which leads to directional instability. To avoid side stresses and directional problems, the
pilot should not allow the airplane to touch down while in a crab or while drifting.
There are two significantly different techniques used to manage tailwheel aircraft touchdowns: three-point and wheel landings. In the
first, the airplane is held off the surface of the runway until the attitude needed to remain aloft matches the geometry of the landing
gear. When touchdown occurs at this point, the main gear and the tailwheel make contact at the same time. In the second technique
(wheel landings), the airplane is allowed to touch down earlier in the process in a lower pitch attitude, so that the main gear touch
while the tail remains off the runway.