Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3C)
Chapter 15: Transition to Turbopropeller-Powered Airplanes
Introduction
The turbopropeller-powered airplane flies and handles just like any other airplane of comparable size and weight, since the
aerodynamics are the same. The major differences between flying a turboprop and other non-turbine-powered airplanes are found in
the handling of the airplane’s powerplant and its associated systems, which are unique to gas turbine engines. The turboprope ller-
powered airplane also has the advantage of being equipped with a constant speed, full feathering and reversing propeller — something
normally not found on piston-powered airplanes.
Gas Turbine Engine
Both piston (reciprocating) engines and gas turbine engines are internal combustion engines. They have a similar cycle of operation
that consists of induction, compression, combustion, expansion, and exhaust. In a piston engine, each of these events is a separate
distinct occurrence in each cylinder. Also in a piston engine, an ignition event occurs during each cycle in each cylinder. Unlike
reciprocating engines, in gas turbine engines these phases of power occur simultaneously and continuously instead of successively
one cycle at a time. Additionally, ignition occurs during the starting cycle and is continuous thereafter. The basic gas turbine engine
contains four sections: intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust. [Figure 15-1]
Figure 15-1. Basic components of a gas turbine engine.
To start a gas turbine engine, the compressor section is normally rotated by an electric starter. As compressor revolutions per minute
(rpm) increase, air flowing through the inlet is compressed to a high pressure, delivered to the combustion section, and ignited. In gas
turbine engines, not all of the compressed air is used to support combustion. Some of the compressed air bypasses the burner section
within the engine to provide internal cooling. The fuel/air mixture in the combustion chamber burns in a continuous combustio n
process and produces a very high temperature, typically around 4,000° Fahrenheit (F). When this hot air mixes with bypass air, the
temperature of the mixed air mass drops to 1,600 – 2,400 °F. The mixture of hot air and gases expands and passes through the turbine
blades forcing the turbine section to rotate. The turbine drives the compressor section by means of a direct shaft, a concentric shaft, or
a combination of both. After powering the turbine section, the combustion gases and bypass air flow out of the engine through the
exhaust. Once the hot gases from the burner section provide sufficient power to maintain engine operation through the turbine, the
starter is de-energized, and the starting sequence ends. Combustion continues until the engine is shut down by cutting off the fuel
supply.
Note: Because compression produces heat and pressure, some pneumatic aircraft systems tap into the source of hot compressed air
from the engine compressor (bleed air) and use it for engine anti-ice, airfoil anti-ice, aircraft pressurization, and other ancillary
systems after further conditioning its internal pressure and temperature.
Turboprop Engines
The turbojet engine (discussed in more detail in the Transition to Jet-Powered Airplanes chapter) excels the reciprocating engine in
top speed and altitude performance. On the other hand, the turbojet engine has limited takeoff and initial climb performance when
compared to its overall performance. In the matter of takeoff and initial climb performance, the reciprocating engine with a constant
speed propeller produces maximum thrust on takeoff. Turbojet engines are most efficient at high speeds and high altitudes, while
propellers are most efficient at slow and medium speeds (less than 400 miles per hour (mph)). Propellers also improve takeoff and
climb performance. The development of the turboprop engine was an attempt to combine the best characteristics of both the turbojet
and propeller-driven reciprocating engine.
The turboprop engine offers several advantages over other types of engines, such as:
1. Light weight
2. Mechanical reliability due to relatively few moving parts
3. Simplicity of operation
4. Minimum vibration
5. High power per unit of weight
6. Use of propeller for takeoff and landing
Turboprop engines are most efficient at speeds between 250 and 400 mph and altitudes between 18,000 and 30,000 feet. They als o
perform well at the slow speeds required for takeoff and landing and are fuel efficient. The minimum specific fuel consumption of the
turboprop engine is normally available in the altitude range of 25,000 feet up to the tropopause.
The power output of a piston engine is measured in horsepower and is determined primarily by rpm and manifold pressure. The
power of a turboprop engine, however, is measured in shaft horsepower (shp). Shaft horsepower is determined by the rpm and th e
torque (twisting moment) applied to the propeller shaft. Since turboprop engines are gas turbine engines, some jet thrust is produced
by exhaust leaving the engine. This thrust is added to the shaft horsepower to determine the total engine power or equivalent shaft
horsepower (eshp). Jet thrust usually accounts for less than 10 percent of the total engine power.
Although the turboprop engine is more complicated and heavier than a turbojet engine of equivalent size and power, it delivers more
thrust at low subsonic airspeeds. However, the advantages decrease as flight speed increases. In normal cruising speed ranges, the
propulsive efficiency (output divided by input) of a turboprop decreases as speed increases.
The propeller of a typical turboprop engine is responsible for roughly 90 percent of the total thrust under sea level conditions on a
standard day. The excellent performance of a turboprop during takeoff and climb is the result of the ability of the propeller to
accelerate a large mass of air while the airplane is moving at a relatively low ground and flight speed. “Turboprop,” however, should
not be confused with “turbo supercharged” or similar terminology. All turbine engines have a similarity to normally aspirated (non-
supercharged) reciprocating engines in that maximum available power decreases almost as a direct function of increased altitude.
Although power decreases as the airplane climbs to higher altitudes, engine efficiency in terms of specific fuel consumption
(expressed as pounds of fuel consumed per horsepower per hour) is increased. Decreased specific fuel consumption plus the
increased true airspeed at higher altitudes is a definite advantage of a turboprop engine.
All turbine engines should operate within their limiting temperatures, rotational speeds, and (in the case of turboprops) torque.
Depending on the installation, the primary parameter for power setting might be temperature, torque, fuel flow, or rpm (eithe r
propeller rpm, gas generator (compressor) rpm, or both). In cold weather conditions, torque limits can be exceeded while temperature
limits are still within acceptable range. In hot weather conditions, the maximum temperature limits may be exceeded without
exceeding torque limits. In any weather, reaching one of these operating limits normally occurs before the pilot moves the throttles to
the full forward position. The transitioning pilot should understand the importance of knowing and observing limits on turbin e
engines. An over temperature or over torque condition that lasts for more than a few seconds can destroy internal engine components.
Turboprop Engine Types
Fixed-Shaft
One type of turboprop engine is the fixed-shaft constant-speed type, such as the Garrett TPE331. [Figure 15-2] In this type engine,
ambient air is directed to the compressor section through the engine inlet. An acceleration/diffusion process in the two-stage
compressor increases air pressure and directs it rearward to a combustor. The combustor is made up of a combustion chamber, a
transition liner, and a turbine plenum. Atomized fuel is added to the air in the combustion chamber. Air also surrounds the
combustion chamber to provide for cooling and insulation of the combustor.
Figure 15-2. Fixed-shaft turboprop engine.
The gas mixture is initially ignited by high-energy igniter plugs, and the expanding combustion gases flow to the turbine. The energy
of the hot, high-velocity gases is converted to torque on the main shaft by the turbine rotors. The reduction gear converts the high
rpm—low torque of the main shaft to low rpm —high torque to drive the accessories and the propeller. The spent gases leaving the
turbine are directed to the atmosphere by the exhaust pipe.
Most of the air passing through the engine provides internal cooling. Only about 10 percent of the air that passes through the engine is
actually used in the combustion process. Up to approximately 20 percent of the compressed air may be bled off for the purpose of
heating, cooling, cabin pressurization, and pneumatic systems. Over half the engine power is devoted to driving the compressor, and
it is the compressor that can potentially produce very high drag in the case of a failed, windmilling engine.
In the fixed-shaft constant-speed engine, the engine rpm may be varied within a narrow range of 96 percent to 100 percent. During
ground operation, the rpm may be reduced to 70 percent. In flight, the engine operates at a constant speed that is maintained by the
governing section of the propeller. Power changes are made by increasing fuel flow and propeller blade angle rather than engine
speed. An increase in fuel flow causes an increase in temperature and a corresponding increase in energy available to the turbine. The
turbine absorbs more energy and transmits it to the propeller in the form of torque. The increased torque forces the propeller blade
angle to be increased to maintain the constant speed. Turbine temperature is a very important factor to be considered in powe r
production. It is directly related to fuel flow and thus to the power produced. It needs to be limited because of strength and durability
of the material in the combustion and turbine section. The control system schedules fuel flow to produce specific temperatures and to
limit those temperatures so that the temperature tolerances of the combustion and turbine sections are not exceeded. The engine is
designed to operate for its entire life at 100 percent. All of its components, such as compressors and turbines, are most efficient when
operated at or near the rpm design point.
Powerplant (engine and propeller) control is achieved by means of a power lever and a condition lever for each engine. [Figure 15-3]
There is no mixture control and/or rpm lever as found on piston-engine airplanes.
On the fixed-shaft constant-speed turboprop engine, the power lever is advanced or retarded to increase or decrease forward thrust.
The power lever is also used to provide reverse thrust. The condition lever sets the desired engine rpm within a narrow range between
that appropriate for ground operations and flight.
Figure 15-3. Powerplant controls—fixed-shaft turboprop engine.
Powerplant instrumentation in a fixed-shaft turboprop engine typically consists of the following basic indicators. [Figure 15-4]
1. Torque or horsepower
2. Interturbine temperature (ITT)
3. Fuel flow
4. RPM
Figure 15-4. Powerplant instrumentation—fixed-shaft turboprop engine.
Torque developed by the turbine section is measured by a torque sensor. The torque is then reflected on the instrument panel
horsepower gauge calibrated in horsepower times 100. ITT is a measurement of the combustion gas temperature between the first and
second stages of the turbine section. The gauge is calibrated in degrees Celsius (°C). Propeller rpm is reflected on a tachometer as a
percentage of maximum rpm. Normally, a vernier indicator on the gauge dial indicates rpm in 1 percent graduations as well. The fuel
flow indicator indicates fuel flow rate in pounds per hour.
Propeller feathering in a fixed-shaft constant-speed turboprop engine is normally accomplished with the condition lever. An engine
failure in this type engine, however, results in a serious drag condition due to the large power requirements of the compressor being
absorbed by the propeller. This could create a serious airplane control problem in twin-engine airplanes unless the failure is
recognized immediately and the affected propeller feathered. For this reason, the fixed-shaft turboprop engine is equipped with
negative torque sensing (NTS).
NTS is a condition wherein propeller torque drives the engine, and the propeller is automatically driven to high pitch to reduce drag.
The function of the negative torque sensing system is to limit the torque the engine can extract from the propeller during windmilling
and thereby prevent large drag forces on the airplane. The NTS system causes a movement of the propeller blades automatically
toward their feathered position should the engine suddenly lose power while in flight. The NTS system is an emergency backup
system in the event of sudden engine failure. It is not a substitution for the feathering device controlled by the condition lever.
Split-Shaft/Free Turbine Engine
In a free power-turbine engine, such as the Pratt & Whitney PT-6 engine, the propeller is driven by a separate turbine through
reduction gearing. The propeller is not on the same shaft as the basic engine turbine and compressor. [Figure 15-5] Unlike the fixed-
shaft engine, in the split-shaft engine the propeller can be feathered in flight or on the ground with the basic engine still running. The
free power-turbine design allows the pilot to select a desired propeller governing rpm, regardless of basic engine rpm.
Figure 15-5. Split shaft/free turbine engine.
A typical free power-turbine engine has two independent counter-rotating turbines. One turbine drives the compressor, while the other
drives the propeller through a reduction gearbox. The compressor in the basic engine consists of three axial flow compressor stages
combined with a single centrifugal compressor stage. The axial and centrifugal stages are assembled on the same shaft and operate as
a single unit.
Inlet air enters the engine via a circular plenum near the rear of the engine and flows forward through the successive compressor
stages. The flow is directed outward by the centrifugal compressor stage through radial diffusers before entering the combustion
chamber, where the flow direction is actually reversed. The gases produced by combustion are once again reversed to expand forward
through each turbine stage. After leaving the turbines, the gases are collected in a peripheral exhaust scroll and are discharged to the
atmosphere through two exhaust ports near the front of the engine.
A pneumatic fuel control system schedules fuel flow to maintain the power set by the gas generator power lever. Except in the beta
range, propeller speed within the governing range remains constant at any selected propeller control lever position through the action
of a propeller governor.
The accessory drive at the aft end of the engine provides power to drive fuel pumps, fuel control, oil pumps, a starter/generator, and a
tachometer transmitter. At this point, the speed of the drive (N 1) is the true speed of the compressor side of the engine,
approximately 37,500 rpm.
Powerplant (engine and propeller) operation is achieved by three sets of controls for each engine: the power lever, propeller lever,
and condition lever. [Figure 15-6] The power lever serves to control engine power in the range from idle through takeoff power.
Forward or aft motion of the power lever increases or decreases gas generator rpm (N 1) and thereby increases or decreases engine
power. The propeller lever is operated conventionally and controls the constant-speed propellers through the primary governor. The
propeller rpm range is normally from 1,500 to 1,900. The condition lever controls the flow of fuel to the engine. Like the m ixture
lever in a piston-powered airplane, the condition lever is located at the far right of the power quadrant. But the condition lever on a
turboprop engine is really just an on/off valve for delivering fuel. There are HIGH IDLE and LOW IDLE positions for ground
operations, but condition levers have no metering function. Leaning is not required in turbine engines; this function is performed
automatically by a dedicated fuel control unit.
Figure 15-6. Powerplant controls—split-shaft/free turbine engine.
Engine instruments in a split-shaft/free turbine engine typically consist of the following basic indicators.
[Figure 15-7]
1. ITT indicator
2. Torquemeter
3. Propeller tachometer
4. N1 (gas generator) tachometer
5. Fuel flow indicator
6. Oil temperature/pressure indicator
Figure 15-7. Engine instruments—split shaft/free turbine engine.
The ITT indicator gives an instantaneous reading of engine gas temperature between the compressor turbine and the power turbines.
The torquemeter responds to power lever movement and gives an indication in foot-pounds (ft/lb) of the torque being applied to the
propeller. Because in the free turbine engine the propeller is not attached physically to the shaft of the gas turbine engine, two
tachometers are justified—one for the propeller and one for the gas generator. The propeller tachometer is read directly in revolutions
per minute. The N 1 or gas generator is read in percent of rpm. In the Pratt & Whitney PT-6 engine, it is based on a figure of 37,000
rpm at 100 percent. Maximum continuous gas generator is limited to 38,100 rpm or 101.5 percent N1.
The ITT indicator and torquemeter are used to set takeoff power. Climb and cruise power are established with the torquemeter and
propeller tachometer while observing ITT limits. Gas generator (N 1) operation is monitored by the gas generator tachometer. Proper
observation and interpretation of these instruments provide an indication of engine performance and condition.
Reverse Thrust and Beta Range Operations
The thrust that a propeller provid es is a function of th e angle of attack (AOA) at which th e air strik es the blades, and th e speed at
which this occurs. The AOA varies with the pitch angle of the propeller.
Forward pitch produces forward thrust —higher pitch angles being required at higher airplane speeds. [Figure 15-8A] So called “flat
pitch,” shown in Figure 15-8B, is the blade position offering minimum resistance to rotation and no net thrust for moving the
airplane.
Figure 15-8A. Propeller forward pitch angle characteristics.
Figure 15-8B. Propeller flat pitch characteristics.