To return to straight-and-level flight from a climb, it is necessary to begin leveling-off prior to reaching the desired altitude. Level-off
should begin at approximately 10 percent of the rate of climb. For example, if the airplane is climbing at 500 feet per minute (fpm),
leveling off should begin 50 feet prior to reaching the desired altitude. The pitch attitude should be decreased smoothly and slowly to
allow for the airspeed to increase. A loss of altitude may result if the pitch attitude is changed too rapidly without allowing the
airspeed to increase proportionately.
After the airplane is established in level flight at a constant altitude, climb power should be retained temporarily so that the airplane
accelerates to the cruise airspeed. When the airspeed reaches the desired cruise airspeed, the throttle setting and the propeller control,
if equipped, should be set to the cruise power setting and the airplane re-trimmed.
Climbing Turns
In the performance of climbing turns, the following factors should be considered:
⦁ With a constant power setting, the same pitch attitude and airspeed cannot be maintained in a bank as in a
straight climb due to the increase in the total lift required. The airplane climbs at a slightly shallower climb
angle because some of the lift is being used to turn the airplane.
⦁ Steep bank angles significantly decreases the rate of climb. The pilot should establish and maintain an
appropriate constant bank during the turn.
⦁ The pilot should maintain a constant airspeed and constant rate of turn in both right and left turns. The
co
ordination of all flight controls is a primary factor.
All the factors that affect the airplane during level constant-altitude turns affect the airplane during climbing turns. Compensation for
the inherent stability of the airplane, overbanking tendencies, adverse yaw, propeller effects, reduction of the vertical component of
lift, and increased drag needs to be managed by the pilot through the manipulation of the flight controls.
Climbing turns may be established by entering the climb first and then banking into the turn or climbing and turning simultaneously.
During climbing turns, as in any turn, the loss of vertical lift should be compensated by an increase in pitch attitude. When a turn is
coupled with a climb, the additional drag and reduction in the vertical component of lift need to be further compensated for by an
additional increase in elevator back pressure. When turns are simultaneous with a climb, it is most effective to limit the turns to
shallow bank angles. This provides for an efficient rate of climb. If a medium or steep banked turn is used, climb performance is
degraded or possibly non-existent.
Common errors in the performance of climbs and climbing turns are:
1. Attempting to establish climb pitch attitude by primarily referencing the airspeed indicator and chasing the airspeed.
2. Applying elevator pressure too aggressively resulting in an excessive climb angle.
3. Inadequate or inappropriate rudder pressure during climbing turns.
4. Allowing the airplane to yaw during climbs usually due to inadequate right rudder pressure.
5. Fixation o n the airplane’s nose during straight climbs, resulting in climbing with one wing low.
6. Initiating a climbing turn without coordinated use of flight controls, resulting in no turn and a climb with one wing low.
7. Improper coordination resulting in a slip that counteracts the rate of climb, resulting in little or no altitude gain.
8. Inability to keep pitch and bank attitude constant during climbing turns.
9. Attempting to exceed the airplane’s climb capability.
10. Using excessive forward elevator pressure during level-off resulting in a loss of altitude or excessive low G-force.
Descents and Descending Turns
When an airplane enters a descent, its attitude changes from level flight to flight with a descent profile. [Figure 3-22] In a descent,
weight no longer acts solely perpendicular to the flightpath. Since induced drag is decreased as lift is reduced in order to descend,
excess thrust will provide higher airspeeds. The weight/gravity force is about the same. This causes an increase in total thrust and a
power reduction is required to balance the forces if airspeed is to be maintained.
Figure 3-22. Descent indications.
The pilot should know the engine power settings, natural horizon pitch attitudes, and flight instrument indications that produce the
following types of descents:
⦁ Partial power descent—the normal method of losing altitude is to descend with partial power. This is often
termed cruise or en route descent. The airspeed and power setting recommended by the AFM/POH for
prolonged descent should be used. The target descent rate should be 500 fpm. The desired airspeed, pitch
attitude, and power combination should be preselected and kept constant.
⦁ Descent at minimum safe airspeed—a nose-high, power-assisted descent condition principally used
for clearing obstacles during a landing approach to a short runway. The airspeed used for this descent
condition is recommended by the AFM/POH and is normally no greater than 1.3 VSO. Some characteristics
of the minimum safe airspeed descent are a steeper-than-normal descent angle, and the excessive power
that may be required to produce acceleration at low airspeed should “mushing” and/or an excessive rate of
descent be allowed to develop.
⦁ Emergency descent—some airplanes have a specific procedure for rapidly losing altitude. The AFM/POH
specifies the procedure. In general, emergency descent procedures are high drag, high airspeed procedures
requiring a specific airplane configuration (such as power to idle, propellers forward, landing gear
extended, and flaps retracted), and a specific emergency descent airspeed. Emergency descent maneuvers
often include turns.
Glides
A glide is a basic maneuver in which the airplane loses altitude in a controlled descent with little or no engine power. Forward motion
is maintained by gravity pulling the airplane along an inclined path, and the descent rate is controlled by the pilot balancing the forces
of gravity and lift. To level off from a partial power descent using a 1,000 feet per minute descent rate, the pilot should use 10 percent
(100 feet in this example) as the distance above the desired level-off altitude to begin raising the nose and adding power to stop the
descent and maintain airspeed.
Although glides are directly related to the practice of power-off accuracy landings, they have a specific operational purpose in normal
landing approaches, and forced landings after engine failure. Therefore, it is necessary that they be performed more subconsciously
than other maneuvers because most of the time during their execution, the pilot will be giving full attention to details other than the
mechanics of performing the maneuver. Since glides are usually performed relatively close to the ground, accuracy of their execution
and the formation of proper technique and habits are of special importance.
The glide ratio of an airplane is the distance the airplane travels in relation to the altitude it loses. For example, if an airplan e travels
10,000 feet forward while descending 1,000 feet, its glide ratio is 10 to 1.
The best glide airspeed is used to maximize the distance flown. This airspeed is important when a pilot is attempting to fly during an
engine failure. The best airspeed for gliding is one at which the airplane travels the greatest forward distance for a given loss of
altitude in still air. This best glide airspeed occurs at the highest lift- to-drag ratio (L/D). [Figure 3-23] When gliding at airspeed
above or below the best glide airspeed, drag increases. Any change in the gliding airspeed results in a proportional change in the
distance flown. [Figure 3-24] As the glide airspeed is increased or decreased from the best glide airspeed, the glide ratio is lessened.
Figure 3-23. L/DMAX.
Figure 3-24. Best glide speed provides the greatest forward distance
Variations in weight do not affect the glide angle provided the pilot uses the proper airspeed. Since it is the L/D ratio that determines
the distance the airplane can glide, weight does not affect the distance flown; however, a heavier airplane needs to fly at a higher
airspeed to obtain the same glide ratio. For example, if two airplanes having the same L/D ratio but different weights start a glide
from the same altitude, the heavier airplane gliding at a higher airspeed arrives at the same touchdown point in a shorter time. Both
airplanes cover the same distance, only the lighter airplane takes a longer time.
Since the highest glide ratio occurs at maximum L/D, certain considerations should be given for drag-producing components of the
airplane, such as flaps, landing gear, and cowl flaps. When drag increases, a corresponding decrease in pitch attitude is required to
maintain airspeed. As the pitch is lowered, the glide path steepens and reduces the distance traveled. To maximize the distan ce
traveled during a glide, all drag-producing components need to be eliminated if possible.
Wind affects the gliding distance. With a tailwind, the airplane glides farther because of the higher groundspeed. Conversely, with a
headwind, the airplane does not glide as far because of the slower groundspeed. This is important for a pilot to understand and
manage when dealing with engine-related emergencies and any subsequent forced landing.
During powered operations, the airplane design compensates for the effects of p-factor and propeller slipstream. While these effects
disappear during a glide, the design compensation remains. During glides, it is likely that slight left rudder pressure will be required
to maintain coordinated flight. In addition, the pilot needs to use greater deflection of the flight controls due to the relatively slow
airflow over the control surfaces.
Minimum sink speed is used to maximize the time that the airplane remains in flight. It results in the airplane losing altitude at the
lowest rate. Minimum sink speed occurs at a lower airspeed than the best glide speed. Flight at the minimum sink airspeed results in
less distance traveled. Minimum sink speed is useful in flight situations where time in flight is more important than distance flown. An
example is ditching an airplane at sea. Minimum sink speed is not an often published airspeed but generally is a few knots less than
best glide speed.
In an emergency, such as an engine failure, attempting to apply elevator back pressure to stretch a glide back to the runway is likely to
lead the airplane landing short and may even lead to loss of control if the airplane stalls. This leads to a cardinal rule of airplane
flying: The pilot should not attempt to “stretch” a glide by applying back-elevator pressure and reducing the airspeed below the
airplane’s recommended best glide speed. The purpose of pitch control during the glide is to maintain the maximum L/D, which may
require fore or aft flight control pressure to maintain best glide airspeed.
To enter a glide, the pilot should close the throttle and, if equipped, advance the propeller lever forward. With back pressure on the
elevator flight control, the pilot should maintain altitude until the airspeed decreases to the recommended best glide speed. In most
airplanes, as power is reduced, propeller slipstream decreases over the horizontal stabilizer, which decreases the tail-down force, and
the airplane’s nose tends to lower immediately. To keep pitch attitude constant after a power change, the pilot should counteract the
pitch down with a simultaneous increase in elevator back pressure. This point is particularly important for fast airplanes as they do
not readily lose their airspeed —any slight deviation of the airplane’s nose downwards results in an immediate increase in airspeed.
Once the airspeed has dissipated to best glide speed, the pitch attitude should be set to maintain that airspeed. This should be done
with reference to the natural horizon and with a quick reference to the flight instruments. When the airspeed has stabilized, the
airplane should be trimmed to eliminate any flight control pressures held by the pilot. Precision is required in maintaining the best
glide airspeed if the benefits are to be realized.
A stabilized, power-off descent at the best glide speed is often referred to as normal glide. The beginning pilot should memorize the
airplane’s attitude and speed with reference to the natural horizon and note the sounds made by the air passing over the airplane’s
structure, forces on the flight controls, and the feel of the airplane. Initially, the learner may be unable to recognize slight variations in
air
speed and angle of bank by vision or by the pressure required on the flight controls. The instructor should point out that an increase
in sound levels denotes increasing speed, while a decrease in sound levels indicates decreasing speed. When a sound level change is
perceived, the learner should cross-check the visual and pressure references. The learner should use all three airspeed references
(sound, visual, and pressure) consciously until experience is gained, and then remain alert to any variation in attitude, feel, or sound.
After a solid comprehension of the normal glide is attained, the learner should be instructed in the differences between normal and
abnormal glides. Abnormal glides are those glides conducted at speeds other than the best glide speed. Glide airspeeds that are too
slow or too fast may result in the airplane not being able to make the intended landing spot, flat approaches, hard touchdowns,
floating, overruns, and possibly stalls and an accident.
Gliding Turns
The absence of the propeller slipstream, , p-factor, loss of effectiveness of the various flight control surfaces at lower airspeeds, and
designed-in aerodynamic corrections complicate the task of flight control coordination in comparison to powered flight for the
learner. These principles should be thoroughly explained to the learner by the flight instructor.
Three elements in gliding turns that tend to force the nose down and increase glide speed are:
1. Decrease in lift due to the direction of the lifting force.
2. Excessive rudder inputs as a result of reduced flight control pressures.
3. The normal stability and inherent characteristics of the airplane to nose-down with the power off.
These three factors make it necessary to use more back pressure on the elevator than is required for a straight glide or a level turn, and
they have an effect on control coordination. The rudder compensates for yawing tendencies when rolling in or out of a gliding turn;
however, the required rudder pedal pressures are reduced as a result of the reduced forces acting on the control surfaces. A learner
may apply excessive rudder pedal pressures based on experience with powered flight. This overcontrol of the aircraft may cause slips
and skids and result in potentially hazardous flight control conditions.
Some examples of this hazard are:
⦁ A low-level gliding steep turn during an engine failure emergency. If the rudder is excessively deflected in
the direction of the bank while the pilot is increasing elevator back pressure in an attempt to retain altitude,
the situation can rapidly turn into an unrecoverable spin.
⦁ During a power-off landing approach. The pilot depresses the rudder pedal with excessive pressure that
leads to increased lift on the outside wing, banking the airplane in the direction of the rudder deflection.
The pilot may improperly apply the opposite aileron to prevent the bank from increasing while applying
elevator back pressure. If allowed to progress, this situation may result in a fully developed cross-control
condition. A stall in this situation almost certainly results in a rapid and unrecoverable spin.
Level-off from a glide is really two different maneuvers depending on the type of glide:
⦁ First, in the event of a complete power failure, the best glide speed should be held until necessary to
reconfigure for the landing. The pilot should plan for a steeper approach than usual. A 10 percent lead (100
feet if the descent rate is 1,000 feet per minute) factor should be sufficient to slow the descent before
landing.
⦁ Second, in the case of simulated power failure training, power should be applied as the 10 percent lead
value appears on the altimeter. This allows a slow but positive power application to maintain or increase
airspeed while the pilot raises the nose to stop the descent and re-trims the airplane as necessary.
The level-off from a practice glide should be started before reaching the desired altitude because of the airplane’s downward inertia.
The amount of lead depends on the rate of descent and the desired airspeed upon completion of the level off. For example, assume the
aircraft is in a 500 fpm rate of descent, and the desired final airspeed is higher than the glide speed. The altitude lead should begin at
approximately 100 feet above the target altitude. At the lead point, power should be increased to the appropriate level flight cruise
power setting. The airplane’s nose tends to rise as airspeed and power increase, and the pilot should smoothly control the pi tch
attitude such that the level-off is completed at the desired altitude and airspeed. When recovery is being made from a gliding turn to a
normal glide, the back pressure on the elevator control, which was applied during the turn, needs to be decreased or the airplane may
pitch up and experience a loss of airspeed. This error requires considerable attention and conscious control adjustment to re-establish
a normal glide airspeed.
Common errors in the performance of descents and descending turns are:
1. Failure to adequately clear for aircraft traffic in the turn direction or descent.
2. Inadequate elevator back pressure during glide entry resulting in an overly steep glide.
3. Failure to slow the airplane to approximate glide speed prior to lowering pitch attitude.
4. Attempting to establish/maintain a normal glide solely by reference to flight instruments.
5. Inability to sense changes in airspeed through sound and feel.
6. Inability to stabilize the glide (chasing the airspeed indicator).
7. Attempting to “stretch” the glide by applying back-elevator pressure.
8. Skidding or slipping during gliding turns and not recognizing the difference in rudder forces with and without power.
9. Failure to lower pitch attitude during gliding turn entry resulting in a decrease in airspeed.
10. Excessive rudder pressure during recovery from gliding turns.
11. Inadequate pitch control during recovery from straight glide.
12. Cross-controlling during gliding turns near the ground.
13. Failure to maintain constant bank angle during gliding turns.
Chapter Summary
The four fundamental maneuvers of straight-and-level flight, turns, climbs, and descents are the foundation of basic airmanship.
Effort and continued practice are required to master the fundamentals. It is important that a pilot consider the six motions of flight:
bank, pitch, yaw and horizontal, vertical, and lateral displacement. In order for an airplane to fly from one location to another, it
pitches, banks, and yaws while it moves over and above, in relationship to the ground, to reach its destination. The airplane should be
treated as an aerodynamic vehicle that is subject to rigid aerodynamic laws. A pilot needs to understand and apply the principles of
flight in order to control an airplane with the greatest margin of mastery and safety.