Figure 3-10. Learning is progressive and occurs at several basic levels.
For example, Bill may explain the procedure for entering a level, left turn to Beverly. The procedure includes several steps: (1)
visually clear the area, (2) add a slight amount of power to maintain airspeed, (3) apply aileron control pressure to the left, (4) add
sufficient rudder pressure in the direction of the turn to avoid slipping and skidding, and (5) increase back pressure to maintain
altitude. When Beverly verbally repeats this instruction, she has learned the procedure by rote. This will not be very useful to her if
there is never an opportunity to make a turn in flight, or if she has no knowledge of the function of aircraft controls.
With proper instruction on the effect and use of the flight controls, and experience in controlling the aircraft during strai ght-and-level
flight, Beverly can consolidate old and new perceptions into an insight on how to make a turn. At this point, she has developed an
understanding of the procedure for turning the aircraft in flight. This understanding is basic to effective learning, but may not
necessarily enable her to make a correct turn on the first attempt.
When Beverly understands the procedure for entering a turn, has had turns demonstrated, and has practiced turn entries until
consistency has been achieved, she has developed the skill to apply what has been learned. This is a major level of learning, and one
at which the instructor is too often willing to stop. Discontinuing instruction on turn entries at this point and directing subsequent
instruction exclusively to other elements of piloting performance is characteristic of piecemeal instruction, which is usuall y
inefficient.
The correlation level of learning, which should be the objective of aviation instruction, is that level at which the individual becomes
able to associate an element which has been taught with other segments or blocks of learning. The other segments may be items or
skills previously learned or new tasks to be undertaken in the future. When Beverly has achieved this level of learning in turn entries,
for example, she has developed the ability to correlate the elements of turn entries with the performance in traffic patterns.
The three higher levels of the cognitive domain include analysis, synthesis and evaluation (the HOTS level previously mentioned in
the learning theory section). The analysis level involves breaking the information into its component parts, examining, and trying to
understand the information in order to develop conclusions, make inferences, and/or find evidence to support generalizations. This
level uses such verbs as points out, differentiate, distinguish, examine, discriminate, compare, outline, prioritize, recognize, or
subdivide.
Synthesis involves putting parts together to form a new and integrated whole. Typical verbs for this level include create, design, plan,
organize, generate, write, adapt, compare, formulate, devise, model, revise, or incorporate. The final level in the taxonomy is
evaluation and involves making judgments about the merits of ideas, materials, or phenomena. The following example demonstrates
the difference between learning on the first three levels versus learning critical thinking skills.
Bill provides a detailed explanation on how to control for wind drift. The explanation includes a thorough coverage of heading,
speed, angle of bank, altitude, terrain, and wind direction plus velocity. The explanation is followed by a demonstration and repeated
practice of a specific flight maneuver, such as turns around a point or S-turns across the road until the maneuver can be consistently
accomplished in a safe and effective manner within a specified limit of heading, altitude, and airspeed. At the end of this lesson,
Beverly is only capable of performing the maneuver.
Then Bill asks Beverly to plan for the arrival at a specific nontowered airport. The planning should take into consideration the
possible wind conditions, arrival paths, airport information and communication procedures, available runways, recommended traffic
patterns, courses of action, and preparation for unexpected situations. Upon arrival at the airport, Beverly makes decisions (with
guidance and feedback as necessary) to safely enter and fly the traffic pattern. This is followed by a discussion of what was done, why
it was done, the consequences, and other possible courses of action and how it applies to other airports. At the end of this lesson the
learner is capable of explaining the safe arrival at any nontowered airport in any wind condition.
For aviation instructors, educational objectives for the first three levels (knowledge, comprehension, and application) are generally
gained as the result of attending a ground school, reading about aircraft systems, listening to a preflight briefing, or taking part in
computer-based training. The highest educational objective levels in this domain (analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) can be acquired
through SBT training. For example, the learner pilot understands how to correctly evaluate a flight maneuver or the maintenan ce
learner repairs an aircraft engine. Sample questions for each level of the cognitive domain are provided in Figure 3-9.
Affective Domain
The affective domain addresses a learner’s emotions toward the educational experience. It includes feelings, values, enthusia sms,
motivations, and attitudes. [Figure 3-11] For the aviation instructor, this may mean how the individual approaches learning. Is he or
she motivated to learn? Does he or she exhibit confidence in learning? Does the learner display a positive attitude towards safety and
risk mitigation?
The affective domain provides a framework for teaching in five levels: awareness, response, value, organizing, and integration. In this
taxonomy, the learner begins on the awareness level and is open to learning, willing to listen to the instructor. As the learner traverses
the taxonomy, he or she responds by participating actively in the training, decides the value of the training, organizes the training into
his or her personal belief system, and finally internalizes it.
Figure 3-11. The affective domain (attitudes, beliefs, and values) contains five educational objective levels.
The affective domain is more difficult to measure, but motivation and enthusiasm are important components of any learning.
Therefore, the aviation instructor should be acquainted with this facet of learning. Motivation is discussed in depth later in the
chapter.
Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain is skill based and includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. [Figure
3-12] Development of these skills utilizes repetitive practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, and techniques.
While various examples of the psychomotor domain exist, the practical instructional levels for aviation training purposes include the
following:
⦁ Observation
⦁ Imitation
⦁ Practice
⦁ Habit
Figure 3-12. The psychomotor domain (physical skills) consists of seven educational objective levels.
These basic levels make up the broad instructional process, independent of the specific domain chosen and are important
components of instruction when aviation instructors prepare learners for the practical test.
At the first level, the learner observes a more experienced person perform the skill. The instructor has the learner observe sequences
and relationships that lead to the finished product. Observation may be supplemented by reading, watching a DVD, or compute r-
based training. The second level is imitation in which the learner attempts to copy the skill under the watchful eye of the instructor.
The practice level is a proficiency building experience in which the learner tries a specific activity over and over. It may be conducted
by the learner without direct oversight of the instructor, such as touch-and-go landings for the flight learner who has flown a
successful solo flight. The habit level is reached when the learner can perform the skill in twice the time that it takes the instructor or
an expert to perform. The evaluation of ability is a performance or skill test. If a person continues to perfect a skill, it eventually
becomes a skill performed at the expert level.
Skills involving the psychomotor domain include learning to fly a precision instrument approach procedure, programming a glo bal
positioning system (GPS) receiver, or using sophisticated maintenance equipment. As physical tasks and equipment become more
complex, the requirement for integration of cognitive and physical skills increases.
Summary of Instructor Actions
To help learners acquire knowledge, the instructor should:
⦁ Ask learners to recite or practice newly acquired knowledge.
⦁ Ask questions that probe learner understanding and prompt them to think about what they have learned in
different ways.
⦁ Present opportunities for learners to apply what they know to solving problems or making decisions.
⦁ Present learners with problems and decisions that test the limits of their knowledge.
⦁ Demonstrate the benefits of understanding and being able to apply knowledge.
⦁ Introduce new topics as they support the objectives of the lesson, whenever possible.
These additional levels of learning are the basis of the knowledge, attitude, and skill learning objectives commonly used in advanced
qualification programs for airline training. They also can be tied to the ACS to show the level of knowledge or skill required for a
particular task. A list of action verbs for the three domains shows appropriate behavioral objectives at each level. [Figure 3-13]
Instructors who are familiar with curriculum development recognize that the action verbs are examples of performance-based
objectives.
Figure 3-13. A listing such as the one shown here is useful for development of almost any training program.
Characteristics of Learning
The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human characteristics. Learning occurs continuously throughout a person’s
lifetime. To understand how people learn, it is necessary to understand what happens to the individual during the process. In spite of
numerous theories and contrasting views, psychologists generally agree there are many characteristics of learning.
Knowledge of the general characteristics of learning help an aviation instructor use them in a learning situation. If learning is a
change in behavior as a result of experience, then instruction needs to include a careful and systematic creation of those experiences
that promote learning. This process can be quite complex because, among other things, an individual’s background strongly
influences the way that person learns. To be effective, the learning situation also should be purposeful, based on experience ,
ultifaceted, and involve an active process.
Learning Is Purposeful
Each learner sees a learning situation from a different viewpoint. Each learner is a unique individual whose past experiences affect
readiness to learn and understanding of the requirements involved. For example, an instructor may give two aviation maintenan ce
learners the assignment of learning certain inspection procedures. One learner may catch on quickly and be able to competentl y
present the assigned material. The combination of an aviation background and future goals may enable that learner to realize the need
and value of learning the procedures. A second learner’s goal may only be to comply with the instructor’s assignment, and may result
in only minimum preparation. The responses differ because each learner acts in accordance with what he or she sees in the situation.
Most people have fairly definite ideas about what they want to do and achieve. Their goals sometimes are short term, involving a
matter of days or weeks. On the other hand, their goals may be carefully planned for a career or a lifetime. Each learner has specific
intentions and goals. Some may be shared by other learners. Learners learn from any activity that tends to further their goals. Their
individual needs and attitudes may determine what they learn as much as what the instructor is trying to teach. In the process of
learning, the goals are of paramount significance. To be effective, aviation instructors need to find ways to relate new learning to the
learner’s goals.
Learning Is a Result of Experience
Since learning is an individual process, the instructor cannot do it for the learner. The learner can learn only from persona l
experiences; therefore, learning and knowledge cannot exist apart from a person. A person’s knowledge is a result of experience, and
no two people have had identical experiences. Even when observing the same event, two people react differently; they learn different
things from it, according to the manner in which the situation affects their individual needs. Previous experience conditions a person
to respond to some things and to ignore others.
All learning is by experience, but learning takes place in different forms and in varying degrees of richness and depth. For instance,
some experiences involve the whole person while others may be based only on hearing and memory. Aviation instructors are face d
with the problem of providing learning experiences that are meaningful, varied, and appropriate. As an example, learners can learn to
say a list of words through repeated drill, or they can learn to recite certain principles of flight by rote. However, they can make them
meaningful only if they understand them well enough to apply them correctly to real situations. If an experience challenges the
learners, requires involvement with feelings, thoughts, memory of past experiences, and physical activity, it is more effective than a
learning experience in which all the learners have to do is commit something to memory.
It seems clear enough that the learning of a physical skill requires actual experience in performing that skill. Pilots in training learn to
fly aircraft only if their experiences include flying an aircraft; AMTs in training learn to overhaul power plants only by actually
performing that task. Mental habits are also learned through practice. If learners are to use sound judgment and develop decision-
making skills, they need experiences that involve knowledge of general principles and require the use of judgment in solving realistic
problems.
Learning Is Multifaceted
If instructors see their objective as being only to train their learners’ memory and muscles, they are underestimating the potential of
the teaching situation. Individuals learn much more than expected if they fully exercise their minds and feelings. The fact that these
items were not included in the instructor’s plan does not prevent them from influencing the learning situation.
Psychologists sometimes classify learning by types, such as verbal, conceptual, perceptual, motor, problem-solving, and emotional.
Other classifications refer to intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and attitudinal changes, along with descriptive terms like surface
or deep learning. However useful these divisions may be, they are somewhat artificial. For example, a class learning to apply the
scientific method of problem-solving may learn the method by trying to solve real problems. But in doing so, the class also engages in
verbal learning and sensory perception at the same time. Each learner approaches the task with preconceived ideas and feelings, and
for many learners, these ideas change as a result of experience. Therefore, the learning process may include verbal elements,
conceptual elements, perceptual elements, emotional elements, and problem-solving elements all taking place at once. This aspect of
learning will become more evident later in this handbook when lesson planning is discussed.
Learning is multifaceted in still another way. While learning the subject at hand, individuals may be learning other things as well.
They may be developing attitudes about aviation—good or bad—depending on what they experience. Under a skillful instructor, they
may learn self-reliance. The list is seemingly endless. This type of learning is sometimes referred to as incidental, but it may have a
great impact on the total development of the learner.
Learning Is an Active Process
Learners do not soak up knowledge like a sponge absorbs water. The instructor cannot assume that learners remember something just
because they were in the classroom, shop, or aircraft when the instructor presented the material. Neither can the instructor assume the
learners can apply what they know because they can quote the correct answer verbatim. For effective knowledge transfer, learners
need to react and respond, perhaps outwardly, perhaps only inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually.
Learning Styles
Learning styles are simply different approaches or ways of learning based on the fact that people absorb and process information in
different ways. Learning style is an individual’s preference for understanding experiences and changing them into knowledge. It
denotes the typical strategy a learner adopts in a learning situation. For example, information may be learned in a variety of ways: by
seeing or hearing, by reflecting or acting, analyzing or visualizing, or it may be learned piecemeal or steadily. Just as people learn
differently, they also have different teaching methods. Some instructors rely on lectures, others demonstrate, and others may prefer
computer simulation training. Everyone has a mixture of strengths and preferences, not a single style or preference to the complete
exclusion of any other. Please bear this in mind when using these ideas.
As mentioned in Chapter 2, Human Behavior, and the discussion of personality types and learning, underpinning the idea of learning
style is the theory that everyone has an individual style of learning. According to this approach, if the learner and instructor work with
that style, rather than against it, both benefit. Currently, 71 different theories of learning styles have been identified. These theories
run from simple to complex, usually reflecting scientific research about how the brain processes information. While the scientific
community may be surprised at how the research has been used, many educators and school systems have become advocates of
applying learning style to teaching methods.
Another model for learning, the Approaches to Learning model, bases its theory on the learner’s intentions. For example, is the
learner interested in short-term memorization of the material or long-term knowledge? Does the learner want a passing grade on a pop
quiz or the ability to use the material to repair an engine? One feature of the Approaches to Learning is that the approach to learning
depends on an individual’s reasons for learning. This theory reflects the Chapter 2, Human Behavior, discussion of adult learners who
come to aviation training with definite reasons.
While controversy exists over the scientific value of learning styles as well as approaches to learning, many educational psychologists
advocate their use in the learning process. Knowledge of learning styles and approaches can help an instructor make adjustments in
how material is presented if his or her learning/teaching style differs from the way an individual learns. Since a learner’s information
processing technique, personality, social interaction tendencies, and the instructional methods used are all significant factors, training
programs should be sensitive to different learning styles.
Right Brain/Left Brain
According to research on the human brain, people have a preferred side of the brain to use for understanding and storing information.
While both sides of the brain are involved in nearly every human activity, it has been shown that those with right-brain dominance are
characterized as being spatially oriented, creative, intuitive, and emotional. Those with left-brain dominance are more verbal,
analytical, and objective. Generally, the brain functions as a whole. For example, the right hemisphere may recognize a face, while
the left associates a name to go with the face.
While most people seem to have a dominant side, it is a preference, not an absolute. On the other hand, when learning is new,
difficult, or stressful, the brain seems to go on autopilot to the preferred side. Recognizing a learner’s dominant brain hemisphere
gives the instructor a guide for ways to teach and reinforce material. There are also some people who use both sides of the brain
equally well for understanding and storing information. [Figure 3-14]
Figure 3-14. The importance of recognizing a dominant brain hemisphere gives the instructor a guide for ways to teach and reinforce
learning.
Holistic/Serialistic Theory
As seen in Figure 3-14, right and left brain learners have preferences for how they process information. Based on
information processing theory, left brain learners or serialist ic learners have an analytic approach to learning. Because they gain
understanding in linear steps, with each step logically following the previous one, these learners need well-defined, sequential steps
where the overall picture is developed slowly, thoroughly, and logically. This is a bottom-up strategy.
Right brain or holistic learners favor the holistic strategy and prefer a big picture or global perspective. This is a top-down strategy
and learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing material almost randomly without seeing connections, until suddenly “it” clicks
and they get it. Global learners solve complex problems rapidly once they have grasped the big picture, but they often have
difficulty explaining how they did it. This type of learner seeks overall comprehension; analogies help this individual.
Index of Learning Styles
In 1988, Richard Felder and Linda Silverman designed a learning style model with parallel learning styles that classified individuals
as having learning preferences in sensing or intuitive, visual or verbal, active or reflective, sequential or global (discussed under
holistic/serialistic learning style). A questionnaire developed by Felder and Solomon that offers learners the opportunity to
assess learning preferences at no cost for noncommercial purposes is available at www.webtools.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/.
[Figure 3-15]