Figure 3-15. Some of the different traits utilized by each learning style.
Visual, Auditory Kinesthetic Learners
One of the most popular learning styles is based on the three main sensory receptors: vision, hearing, and touch. These are called
visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles (VAK). [Figure 3-16] Research in this area dates back to the early 20th century and
the concepts were developed over many years by psychologists and teaching specialists. Others have augmented the VAK model with
the addition of R for “reading” (VARK), or the addition of T for “tactile” (VAKT), or even a combination of the terms for VARKT.
Figure 3-16. Visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning styles (VAK).
Learners generally use all three styles to receive information, but one of these three ways of receiving information is dominant. Once
again, the dominant style of receiving information is the best way for a person to learn new information, but this style may not be the
same for every task. The learner may use one style of learning or a combination of styles depending on the task.
Visual learners rely on seeing information. They learn best if a major component of the lesson is something they can see, and work
best with printed and graphic materials, visual displays including diagrams, illustrated text books, overhead presentations, videos, flip
charts, and hand-outs. They store information in their brains as pictures or images. They like to take extensive notes. Statistically,
most people are visual learners.
Auditory learners transfer knowledge through listening and speaking. These learners need an oral component to the lesson such as
verbal instructions. These learners have excellent listening skills and remember what was discussed over what was seen. They are
better at verbally explaining than at writing. Since auditory learners prefer to listen to material, they are not good note takers.
Kinesthetic learners process and store information through physical experience such as touching, manipulating, using, or doing. They
like to move around while trying to solve a problem and learn best when the material being taught involves hands-on practical
experiences. Their concentration tends to wander when there is no external stimulation. They also learn from demonstration by
watching carefully, then imagining or mirroring the demonstrator’s movements.
Learners may prefer one of these three learning styles over another, but most employ all three depending on the material being taught.
For example, when Beverly makes her first landing with Bill guiding her attempt, she employs visual, auditory, and kinestheti c
learning. As the aircraft enters downwind, Beverly uses visual cues to recognize the airport and landing strip as she lines the aircraft
up to land. As Bill talks her through the procedures, Beverly is using her auditory learning skills to learn how to land the aircraft.
Finally, she needs to use kinesthetic skills to perform the actual landing.
Remember, good learners are capable of processing information in a variety of ways. The key to meeting individual needs is to ensure
a variety of learning styles are addressed in every lesson.
Superlinks
In a theory proposed by Ricki Linksman, the learning style ideas discussed in the preceding paragraphs have been melded into a
concept based on the VAKT learning styles plus brain hemisphere preference. This “superlink,” as she calls it, is the easiest way for a
learner to process information in order to understand, remember, and retain it. Matching visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile with
right- and left-brain research, Linksman created eight superlinks: visual left-brain, visual right-brain, auditory left-brain, auditory
right-brain, tactile left-brain, tactile right-brain, kinesthetic left-brain, and kinesthetic right-brain. These superlinks accelerate learning
by targeting the best way a person learns.
Summary
As mentioned earlier, there are many models of how people learn. Some models identify styles or approaches that are easily
recognized such as collaborative, sharing learners who enjoy working with others, versus competitive learners who are grade
conscious and feel they should do better than their peers. Participant learners normally have a desire to learn and enjoy attending class,
and avoidant learners do not take part in class activities and have little interest in learning.
The environment also influences learning style. In real life, most learners find it necessary to adapt to a traditional style-learning
environment provided by a school, university, or other educational/training establishment. Sometimes, the learner’s way of learning
may or may not be compatible with his or her environment.
Instructors who recognize either the learning style or learning approach and problems associated with them are more effective
teachers than those who do not. Also, these instructors are prepared to develop appropriate lesson plans and provide guidance ,
counseling, or other advisory services, as required.
Acquiring Skill Knowledge
An aviation instructor also helps a learner acquire skill knowledge, which is knowledge reflected in motor or manual skills and in
cognitive or mental skills, that manifests itself in the doing of something. Thus, skill knowledge differs from declarative knowledge
because the learner is not usually aware of it consciously or able to articulate the skill. Evidence of skill knowledge is gained through
observations of performance. This knowledge of how to do things is based on extensive practice, which leads to the storage of skill
knowledge. An everyday example of skill knowledge is the ability to ride a bicycle.
Skill knowledge is acquired slowly through related experience. For example, a maintenance individual in training who is learning to
weld typically burns or cracks the metal being welded while an expert welder’s work is free of such imperfections. What does the
experienced welder “know” that the beginner does not? The expert welder has had many hours of practice and a knowing-is-in-the-
doing ability the inexperienced welder lacks. It isn’t always possible to reduce to mere words that which one knows or knows how to
do.
Stages of Skill Acquisition
Individuals make their way from beginner to expert via three characteristic stages for skill acquisition (or the learning process) as
follows: cognitive, associative, and automaticity. An instructor needs to recognize each stage in learner performance in order to assess
progress.
Cognitive Stage
Cognitive learning has a basis in factual knowledge. Since the learner has no prior knowledge of flying, the instructor first introduces
him or her to a basic skill. The learner then memorizes the steps required to perform the skill. As the learner carries out these
memorized steps, he or she is often unaware of progress, or may fixate on one aspect of performance. Performing the skill at this
stage typically requires all the learner’s attention; distractions introduced by an instructor often cause performance to deteriorate or
stop.
The best way to prepare the learner to perform a task is to provide a clear, step- by-step example. Having a model to follow permits
learners to get a clear picture of each step in the sequence so they understand what is required and how to do it. In flight or
maintenance training, the instructor provides the demonstration, emphasizing the steps and techniques. During classroom instruction,
an outside expert may be used, either in person or in a video presentation. In any case, learners need to have a clear impression of
what they are to do.
For example, Beverly enters a steep turn after increasing power by a prescribed amount and adjusting the pitch trim. She fixates on
the attitude indicator as she attempts to achieve the desired bank angle. The bank angle exceeds tolerances as she struggles to correct
it, making many abrupt control inputs.
Associative Stage
Even demonstrating how to do something does not result in the learner learning the skill. Practice is necessary in order for the learner
to learn how to coordinate muscles with visual and tactile senses. Learning to perform various aircraft maintenance skills or flight
maneuvers requires practice. Another benefit of practice is that as the learner gains proficiency in a skill, verbal instructions become
more meaningful. A long, detailed explanation is confusing before the learner begins performing, whereas specific comments ar e
more meaningful and useful after the skill has been partially mastered.
As the storage of a skill via practice continues, the learner understands how to associate individual steps in performance with likely
outcomes. The learner no longer performs a series of memorized steps, but is able to assess his or her progress along the way and
make adjustments in performance. Performing the skill still requires deliberate attention, but the learner is better able to deal with
distractions.
For example, Beverly enters the steep turn and again struggles to achieve the desired bank angle. Still working on the bank angle, she
remembers the persistent altitude control problem and glances at the altimeter. Noticing that the aircraft has descended almost 100
feet, she increases back pressure on the control and adjusts the trim slightly. She goes back to a continuing struggle with the bank
angle, keeping it under control with some effort, and completes the turn 80 feet higher than started.
Automatic Response Stage
Automaticity is one of the by-products of practice. As procedures become automatic, less attention is required to carry them out, so it
is possible to do other things simultaneously, or at least do other things more comfortably. By this stage, learner performance of the
skill is rapid and smooth. The learner devotes much less deliberate attention to performance, and may be able to carry on a
conversation or perform other tasks while performing the skill. The learner makes far fewer adjustments during his or her
performance and these adjustments tend to be small. The learner may no longer be able to remember the individual steps in the
procedure, or explain how to perform the skill.
For example, the learner smoothly increases power, adds back pressure on the yoke, and trims the aircraft as a turn is entered. During
the turn, the instructor questions the learner on an unrelated topic. The learner answers the questions, while making two sma ll
adjustments in pitch and trim, and then rolls out of the turn with the altimeter centered on the target altitude. Noting the dramatically
improved performance, the instructor asks “What are you doing differently?” The learner seems unsure and says, “I have developed a
feel for it.”
Knowledge of Results
In some simple skills, learners can discover their own errors quite easily. In other cases, such as learning complex aircraft
maintenance skills, flight maneuvers, or flight crew duties, mistakes are not always apparent. A learner may know that something is
wrong, but not know how to correct it. In any case, the instructor provides a helpful and often critical function in making certain that
the learners are aware of their progress. It is perhaps as important for learners to know when they are right as when they a re wrong.
They should be told as soon after the performance as possible, and should not be allowed to practice mistakes. It is more difficult to
unlearn a mistake, and then learn the skill correctly, than to learn correctly in the first place. One way to make learners aware of their
progress is to repeat a demonstration or example and to show them the standards their performance should ultimately meet.
How to Develop Skills
Theories about how a skill evolves from the awkward and deliberate performance associated with the cognitive stage to the smooth
and steady-handed performance of the automatic response stage have one thing in common: progress appears to depend on repeated
practice. Making progress toward automating a skill seems to be largely a matter of performing the skill over and over again. In skill
learning, the first trials are slow and coordination is lacking. Mistakes are frequent but each trial provides clues for improvement in
subsequent trials. The learner modifies different aspects of the skill such as how to hold the yoke or how to weld.
How long does it take to become proficient at a skill? Studies of skill learning have demonstrated that progress tends to follow what is
known as a power law of practice. This law simply states that the speed of performance of a task improves as a power of the number
of times that the task is performed. The logarithm of the reaction time for a particular task decreases linearly with the logarithm of the
number of practice trials taken. Qualitatively, the law simply says that practice improves performance.
The graph in Figure 3-17 shows how the power law of practice relates the time required to perform a skill to the number of times the
skill has been practiced. While it is impossible to predict how many practice trials a learner will require to develop a skill to
maturity, the general shape of the power law of practice offers some clues. Learning progress proceeds at a fast pace in the beginning
(when there is ample room for improvement) and tends to slow down as performance becomes more skilled. In later stages of
learning, improvement is more gradual. Once the curve levels off, it may stay level for a significant period of time. Further
improvement may even seem unlikely. This is called a learning plateau.
Figure 3-17. Learners will probably experience a learning plateau at some point in their training.
Learning Plateaus
A learning plateau may signify any number of conditions. For example, the learner may have reached capability limits, may be
consolidating levels of skill, interest may have waned, or the learner may need a more efficient method for increasing progress. Keep
in mind that the apparent lack of increasing proficiency does not necessarily mean that learning has ceased. When learning motor
skills, a plateau, is normal and should be expected after an initial period of rapid improvement.
The instructor should prepare the learner for this situation to avert discouragement by explaining that the plateau is normal and
temporary. Instructors can help learners who fall into a plateau by moving the learner to a different place in the curriculum and giving
the current task a break. Instructors should also be aware that they can bring on a learning plateau by over-practice. Learning plateau
problems can sometimes be alleviated also by the instructor better explaining the lesson, the reason for the lesson, and how it applies
to the learner.
Types of Practice
Once a learner learns the skill, it is important to continue some practice to improve retention, but the power law of practice raises the
question of whether or not there is a point at which continued practice no longer leads to improvement. Since athletic coaches, among
others, are very interested in maximizing performance, much research has been done on the subject. Within the last few years,
research has shown that how practice is structured makes an important impact on how well people retain what they have learned.
There are three types of practice, each of which yields particular results in acquiring skills: deliberate, blocked, and random.
Deliberate Practice
In order for a learner to gain skill knowledge on how to perform the skill automatically, he or she needs to engage in deliberate
practice. This practice is aimed at a particular goal. During deliberate practice, the learner practices specific areas for improvement
and receives specific feedback after practice. The feedback points out discrepancies between the actual performance and the
performance goal sought. During deliberate practice, a learner focuses on eliminating these discrepancies. [Figure 3-18]
Figure 3-18. A learner exhibits deliberate practice by plotting courses for his next training flight.
Studies of skill learning suggest a learner achieves better results if distractions are avoided during deliberate practice. When feedback
is needed to correct learner performance, it should be brief and explicit. Examples of individual skills for pilots are landings, stalls,
steep turns, and procedure flows. Examples for maintenance technicians are correct installation of piston rings on a reciprocating
engine, setting timing on an aircraft engine, and installing a tach generator.
Unlike the acquisition of knowledge, skill learning does not benefit from the instructor introducing the learner to new ideas or
prompting the learner to think about old ones in different ways. On the other hand, instructors should not confuse distractions during
skill learning with the legitimate use of distractions to help a learner learn how to manage his or her attention while coordinating
several tasks that have been mastered to some degree.
Blocked Practice
Blocked practice is practicing the same drill until the movement becomes automatic. Doing the same task over and over leads t o
better short-term performance, but poorer long-term learning. It tends to fool not only the learner but the instructor into thinking the
skills have been well learned. While blocked practice enhances current performance, it does not improve either concept learning or
retrieval from long-term memory. [Figure 3-19]
Figure 3-19. Pilot practices cross-wind landings repeatedly to improve performance.
Random Practice
Random practice mixes up the skills to be acquired throughout the practice session. This type of practice leads to better retention
because by performing a series of separate skills in a random order, the learner starts to recognize the similarities and differences of
each skill which makes it more meaningful. The learner also is able to store the skill more effectively in the long-term memory.
Learners get to retrieve steps and parameters from long-term memory which helps learners recognize patterns between tasks.
Blocked practice performance scores well during the actual practice when compared to random practice performance. But on a test
given the next day, random practice does better than blocked practice. For long-term retention of aviation knowledge, the instructor
who uses well-written SBT which encourages random practice and leads to better retention of information.
How much practice is needed to attain proficiency? In planning for learner skill acquisition, a primary consideration is the length of
time devoted to practice. A beginning learner reaches a point where additional practice is not only unproductive, but may even be
harmful. When this point is reached, errors increase, and motivation declines. As a learner gains experience, longer periods of
practice are profitable.
Another consideration is the problem of whether to divide the practice period. Perhaps even the related instruction should be broken
down into segments, or it may be advantageous to plan one continuous, integrated sequence. The answer depends on the nature of the
skill. Some skills are composed of closely related steps, each dependent on the preceding one. Learning to pack a parachute is a good
example. Other skills are composed of related subgroups of skills. Learning to overhaul an aircraft engine is a good example.
One way to structure practice to get the most from learning is to expose the learner to the same knowledge and skill in different
contexts. For example, after practicing the short field landing in the aircraft, return to the classroom and rehearse the procedure using
the toy airplane. Then, watch a video that shows a variety of back- to-back landings and have the learner describe what went right and
what went wrong. Each of these methods gives the learner the chance practice the maneuver while adding new perceptions and
insights to his or her skill base.
Evaluation Versus Critique
In the initial stages of skill acquisition, practical suggestions are more valuable to the learner than a grade. Early evaluation is usually
teacher oriented. It provides a check on teaching effectiveness, can be used to predict learner outcomes, and can help the teacher
locate special problem areas. The observations on which the evaluations are based also can identify the learner’s strengths and
weaknesses, a prerequisite for making constructive criticism. For additional information, refer to Chapter 6, Assessment.
As a learner practices a skill, it is important he or she perform the skill correctly and that the skill being practiced is one that needs to
be developed to maturity. An instructor ensures a skill is practiced correctly by monitoring the practice and providing feedback about
the skill development. The learner profits by having someone watch the performance and provide constructive criticism to help
eliminate errors. Providing compliments on aspects of the skill that were performed correctly help keep the evaluation positive.
Allowing the learner to critique his or her performance enhances learner-centered training.
Instructors should note learners can develop deviations from the intended method of performance at any stage of skill acquisition.
Overlearning of Knowledge
Overlearning is the continued study of a skill after initial proficiency has been achieved. Practice proceeds beyond the point at which
the act can be performed with the required degree of excellence. The phenomenon of overlearning sometimes occurs when knowledge
used frequently begins to take on the properties of a skill. For example, a learner’s everyday knowledge about weight and balance
concepts tends to center on the routine use of familiar charts found in the aircraft. Eventually, the learner’s performance is
characterized less by an understanding of weight and balance concepts, and more by an automatic process in which rows and columns
of familiar charts give desired numbers.
In some cases, the overlearning of knowledge has the advantage of making application of knowledge more streamlined and efficient.
In other cases, the development of automated routines can lead to problems. For example, a verbal checklist procedure becomes so
automatic that a streamlined recitation of checklist items becomes decoupled from the thoughts and actions the checklist items are
intended to trigger. In this case, the pilot or mechanic may not stop to consider each item.
The development of automated skills can impede further learning or lead to forgetting general knowledge. In one study, learner pilots
and flight instructors were asked to solve weight and balance problems using charts taken from two different aircraft: (1) a small
single-engine airplane they flew on a daily basis and (2) a different small single-engine airplane in which they had no experience. Test
scores were surprisingly low when the charts for the unfamiliar airplane were used, and this was as true for instructors as it was for
learners. The results suggest pilots had focused on developing streamlined, automatic procedures tuned to the details of the familiar
aircraft charts while their ability to use their understanding of overall weight and balance concepts seemed to have diminished.
Instructors should remain aware of skills learners develop as a result of overlearning and help make sure that their actions continue to
be accompanied by a use of their underlying knowledge. As a learner progresses, the key difference between knowledge and skil l
becomes apparent. Memorized facts about a topic that once supported the beginner’s awkward performance of the skill tend to
develop into deeper understanding. Skill acquisition involves learning many individual steps that eventually meld into a seemingly
co
ntinuous automated process, at which point the learner has entered the procedural knowledge realm, and may no longer be
consciously aware of the individual steps.
Application of Skill
The final and critical question is “Can the learner use the information received?” It is not uncommon to find that learners devote
weeks and months in school learning new abilities, and then fail to apply these abilities on the job. To solve this problem, two
conditions need to be present. First, the learner needs to understand the skill so well that it becomes easy, even habitual. Second, the
learner should be able to recognize the types of situations where it is appropriate to use the skill. This second condition involves the
question of transfer of learning, which is discussed later in this chapter.
Summary of Instructor Actions
To help learners acquire skills, the instructor should: