VFR over-the-top. A VFR operation in which an aircraft
operates in VFR conditions on top of an undercast.
Victor airways. Airways based on a centerline that extends
from one VOR or VORTAC navigation aid or intersection,
to another navigation aid (or through several navigation aids
or intersections); used to establish a known route for en route
procedures between terminal areas.
Visual approach slope indicator (VASI). A visual aid of
lights arranged to provide descent guidance information
during the approach to the runway. A pilot on the correct
glide slope will see red lights over white lights.
Visual descent point (VDP). A defined point on the final
approach course of a nonprecision straight-in approach
procedure from which normal descent from the MDA to the
runway touchdown point may be commenced, provided the
runway environment is clearly visible to the pilot.
Visual flight rules (VFR). Flight rules adopted by the
FAA governing aircraft flight using visual references. VFR
operations specify the amount of ceiling and the visibility the
pilot must have in order to operate according to these rules.
When the weather conditions are such that the pilot can not
operate according to VFR, he or she must use instrument
flight rules (IFR).
Visual meteorological conditions (VMC). Meteorological
conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from
cloud, and ceiling meeting or exceeding the minimums
specified for VFR.
VMC. See visual meteorological conditions.
VOR. See very-high frequency omnidirectional range.
VORTAC. A facility consisting of two components, VOR
and TACAN, which provides three individual services: VOR
azimuth, TACAN azimuth, and TACAN distance (DME) at
one site.
VOR test facility (VOT). A ground facility which emits a
test signal to check VOR receiver accuracy. Some VOTs are
available to the user while airborne, while others are limited
to ground use only.
VOT. See VOR test facility.
VSI. See vertical speed indicator.
WAAS. See wide area augmentation system.
Warning area. An area containing hazards to any aircraft
not participating in the activities being conducted in the
area. Warning areas may contain intensive military training,
gunnery exercises, or special weapons testing.
Waypoint. A designated geographical location used for route
definition or progress-reporting purposes and is defined in
terms of latitude/longitude coordinates.
WCA. See wind correction angle.
Weather and radar processor (WARP). A device that
provides real-time, accurate, predictive and strategic weather
information presented in an integrated manner in the National
Airspace System (NAS).
Weight. The force exerted by an aircraft from the pull of
gravity.
Wide area augmentation system (WAAS). A differential
global positioning system (DGPS) that improves the accuracy
of the system by determining position error from the GPS
satellites, then transmitting the error, or corrective factors,
to the airborne GPS receiver.
Wind correction angle (WCA). The angle between the
desired track and the heading of the aircraft necessary to
keep the aircraft tracking over the desired track.
Wind shear. A change in wind speed and/or wind direction
in a short distance.
Work. A measurement of force used to produce movement.
Zone of confusion. Volume of space above the station where
a lack of adequate navigation signal directly above the VOR
station causes the needle to deviate.
acceleration error .........................................................5-13
acceleration in cruise flight ..........................................4-10
ADF components ...........................................................9-3
advanced technologies .................................................9-24
advanced technology systems ......................................5-28
aerodynamic factors ............................................... 4-1, 5-1
aerodynamics .................................................................4-2
aeronautical information manual (AIM) .............. 1-1, 10-2
aircraft control ................................................................8-3
during instrument flight ..............................................6-3
aircraft system malfunctions ........................................11-3
air data computer (ADC) .............................................5-22
airplane trim ...................................................................6-8
airport/facility directory (A/FD) ..................................10-2
airport sketch/airport diagram ......................................1-27
air route traffic control center (ARTCC) .......................2-7
airspace classification .....................................................1-2
Class A .......................................................................1-2
Class C ........................................................................1-2
Class D .......................................................................1-2
Class E ........................................................................1-2
Class G .......................................................................1-2
airspeed ..........................................................................5-9
indicated airspeed (IAS) .............................................5-9
calibrated airspeed (CAS) ..........................................5-9
equivalent airspeed (EAS) ..........................................5-9
mach number ............................................................5-10
true airspeed (TAS) ....................................................5-9
airspeed changes
common errors ..........................................................8-10
in straight-and-level flight .............................. 7-11, 7-40
airspeed color codes .....................................................5-10
airspeed indicator (ASI) .5-8, 6-6, 6-8, 6-10, 7-6, 7-37, 8-5
air traffic control (ATC) .................................................2-1
alternator/generator failure ...........................................11-5
altimeter ...............................................6-10, 7-3, 7-36, 8-4
enhancements (encoding) ...........................................5-7
analog instrument failure .............................................11-7
analog pictorial displays ..............................................5-23
angle of attack ................................................................4-2
applying the four-step process .....................................6-20
approach azimuth guidance ..........................................9-43
approach control advances ...........................................2-12
precision runway monitor (PRM).............................2-12
PRM benefits ............................................................2-13
PRM radar ................................................................2-12
approach control facility ..............................................2-12
approaches ..................................................................10-13
lighting systems (ALS) .............................................9-38
to airport with an operating tower ..........................10-15
to airport without an operating control
tower .......................................................................10-13
to parallel runways .................................................10-20
to stall .......................................................................7-26
area navigation (RNAV) ..............................................9-22
ATC inflight weather avoidance assistance .................2-11
ATC radar weather displays .........................................2-11
ATC reports .................................................................10-7
ATC towers ....................................................................2-5
atmosphere .....................................................................4-4
layers of the atmosphere .............................................4-5
attitude and heading reference system (AHRS) ...........5-22
attitude control ...............................................................6-3
attitude direction indicator (ADI) ................................5-23
attitude indicator .. 5-19, 6-4, 7-2, 7-6, 7-34, 7-37, 8-3, 8-5
attitude instrument flying
fundamental skills.....................................................6-24
primary and supporting method ...............................6-21
using the control and performance method ................6-2
using the primary and supporting method ..................6-4
automated flight service stations (AFSS) .......................2-4
automatic dependent surveillance—broadcast
(ADS-B) .......................................................................5-28
autopilot systems ..........................................................5-25
usage .........................................................................7-58
autorotations .................................................................8-17
common errors ..........................................................8-17
aviation magnetic compass ..........................................5-10
Index
bank ..............................................................................7-25
bank control .......................... 6-4, 6-7, 6-20, 7-6, 7-37, 8-5
blockage of the pitot-static system .................................5-2
pitot system ................................................................5-2
static system ...............................................................5-3
cancelling IFR flight plans ...........................................10-3
center approach/departure control ..................................2-7
certified checkpoints ....................................................9-16
change of airspeed
during turns ..............................................................7-24
in turns ......................................................................8-14
circling approaches ....................................................10-20
patterns .....................................................................7-32
clearances .....................................................................10-3
separations ................................................................10-4
climbing and descending turns ........................... 7-24, 8-15
climbing while accelerating ...........................................3-8
climbing while turning ...................................................3-8
climbs ................................................................. 4-10, 7-14
common cross-check errors .........................................6-11
communication equipment .............................................2-2
communication facilities ................................................2-4
communication/navigation system malfunction ..........11-8
communication procedures ............................................2-4
compass locator ............................................................9-38
compass turns ............................................ 7-21, 7-53, 8-15
compliance with published standard instrument
approach procedures ..................................................10-13
conducting an IFR flight ............................................10-26
constant airspeed climb
from cruise airspeed .................................................7-46
from established airspeed .........................................7-47
constant rate climbs ......................................................7-47
control and performance method .................................6-18
control instruments ............................................... 6-2, 6-18
control sequence ...........................................................2-13
coping with spatial disorientation ..................................3-8
course deviation indicator (CDI) .................................9-11
course interception .......................................................9-14
course reversal elements in plan view and profile
view ..............................................................................1-20
procedure turns .........................................................1-20
holding in lieu of procedure turn ..............................1-20
teardrop procedure ....................................................1-21
density altitude ...............................................................4-5
departure procedures (DPs) ................................ 1-12, 10-5
departures and instrument departure
procedures (DPs) ..........................................................9-31
departures from airports without an operating control
tower ............................................................................10-7
descents .............................................................. 7-16, 7-49
differential global positioning systems (DGPS) ..........9-32
distance measuring equipment (DME) ........................9-17
arc .............................................................................9-17
components .............................................................9-17
function .....................................................................9-17
holding ....................................................................10-13
disturbances to radio wave reception .............................9-3
diving or rolling beyond the vertical plane ....................3-8
diving while turning .......................................................3-8
drag ................................................................................4-3
induced drag ...............................................................4-3
parasite drag ...............................................................4-3
skin friction drag ........................................................4-3
interference drag .........................................................4-3
form drag ....................................................................4-4
drag curves .....................................................................4-6
dry air vacuum pump ...................................................5-17
dynamic pressure type instruments ................................5-8
ears .................................................................................3-4
electrical systems .........................................................5-17
electronic flight display malfunction ...........................11-4
electronic flight instrument systems .............................5-27
emergencies ..................................................................8-16
engine instruments .........................................................6-8
en route procedures ......................................................10-7
errors during compass turns .........................................7-26
establishing a standard rate turn ...................................7-51
eyes ................................................................................3-2
federal airways ...............................................................1-4
filing in flight................................................................10-2
flags or other signal strength indicators .......................9-11
flight director system (FDS) .........................................5-23
flight instruments ................................................. 4-16, 8-2
flight management systems (FMS) ........... 5-26, 5-27, 9-44
function .....................................................................9-46
flight services station (FFS) ...........................................2-4
flightpath ........................................................................4-2
flight support systems ..................................................5-22
flux gate compass system .............................................5-15
four forces ......................................................................4-2
drag .............................................................................4-3
lift ....................................................................... 4-2, 4-6
thrust ...........................................................................4-3
weight .........................................................................4-3
function of ADF .............................................................9-4
glideslope (GS) ............................................................9-37
global navigation satellite system (GNSS) ..................9-24
global positioning system (GPS) ....................... 5-27, 9-25
components ...............................................................9-25
errors .........................................................................9-31
function .....................................................................9-26
instrument approaches ..............................................9-29
nearest airport function .............................................11-9
substitution ...............................................................9-27
substitution for ADF or DME ..................................9-27
ground proximity warning system (GPWS) ................5-34
ground wave ...................................................................9-2
gyroscopic instruments ................................................5-19
gyroscopic systems ......................................................5-16
heading .........................................................................7-44
heading indicator ................. 5-19, 6-7, 6-10, 7-7, 7-38, 8-6
head-up display (HUD) ...................................... 5-34, 9-46
height above landing (HAL) ........................................1-27
helicopter trim ..............................................................6-10
holding instructions ....................................................10-10
holding procedures .....................................................10-10
homing ...........................................................................9-5
horizontal situation indicator (HSI) ................... 5-23, 7-38
how radio waves propagate ............................................9-2
how to prevent landing errors due to optical illusions ...3-9
IAP minimums ...........................................................10-21
ICAO cold temperature error table ................................5-5
icing ..............................................................................4-13
antenna icing.............................................................4-17
clear ice.....................................................................4-13
effects of icing on critical aircraft systems ...............4-16
general effects of icing on airfoils ............................4-14
induction icing ..........................................................4-13
mixed ice ..................................................................4-14
propeller icing...........................................................4-16
rime ice .....................................................................4-14
structural icing .............................................. 4-13, 10-23
IFR en route charts .........................................................1-6
airport information .....................................................1-6
charted IFR altitudes ..................................................1-6
navigation features .....................................................1-7
IFR flight plan ..............................................................10-2
IFR flight using GPS ....................................................9-28
illusions leading to spatial disorientation .......................3-5
inadvertent icing encounter ..........................................11-2
inadvertent thunderstorm encounter ............................11-2
inertial navigation system (INS) ..................................9-34
INS components .......................................................9-34
INS errors .................................................................9-34
inoperative components ...............................................1-27
instrument approach capabilities ..................................9-32
instrument approaches to civil airports ......................10-13
instrument approach procedure charts .........................1-12
margin identification.................................................1-12
pilot briefing .............................................................1-16
plan view ..................................................................1-16
instrument approach procedure (IAP) ..........................1-12
approach systems ......................................................9-35
cross-check .............................................. 6-10, 6-24, 8-2
instrument flight .............................................................8-2
instrument flight patterns ................................... 7-30, 7-61
instrument flying common errors .................................6-27
emphasis ...................................................................6-28
fixation ......................................................................6-27
omission ...................................................................6-28
instrument interpretation ...................................... 6-13, 8-3
instrument landing systems (ILS) ................................9-35
airborne components ................................................9-38
components ...............................................................9-35
errors .........................................................................9-40
function .....................................................................9-40
instrument takeoff ..................................... 7-29, 7-60, 8-17
common errors ....................................... 7-29, 7-61, 8-18
instrument weather flying ..........................................10-22
integrated flight control system ....................................5-25
intercepting bearings ......................................................9-8
intercepting lead radials ...............................................9-18
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) ........1-1
international standard atmosphere (ISA) .......................4-5
intersections ...................................................................1-7
inverted-V cross-check ................................................6-11
landing ........................................................................10-22
landing minimums .......................................................1-23
large airplanes ..............................................................4-10
law of inertia, the ...........................................................4-4
law of momentum, the ...................................................4-4
law of reaction, the .........................................................4-4
learning methods .................................................. 6-2, 6-16
letters of agreement (LOA) ..........................................2-15
leveling off ......................................................... 7-16, 7-17
load factor ....................................................................4-12
local area augmentation system (LAAS) .....................9-33
localizer ........................................................................9-35
localizer type directional aid (LDA) ............................9-43
loss of alternator/generator for electronic flight
instrumentation ............................................................11-5
magnetic compass ................................................ 5-10, 6-7
acceleration error ......................................................5-13
construction ..............................................................5-11
deviation ...................................................................5-12
induced errors ...........................................................5-11
northerly turning errors ............................................5-13
oscillation error.........................................................5-14
southerly turning errors ............................................5-13
theory of operations ..................................................5-11
variation ....................................................................5-12
magnetism ....................................................................5-10
marker beacons .................................................. 9-37, 9-40
master battery switch ...................................................11-5
maximum allowable airspeed ......................................5-10
microwave landing system (MLS) ...............................9-43
missed approaches .....................................................10-21
multi-function display (MFD) ......................................5-28
National Aeronautical Navigation Services
(AERONAV services) .................................................10-2
National Airspace System (NAS) ..................................1-1
navaids ...........................................................................1-7
navigating the MFD page groups ...............................11-10
nearest airport page group ......................................11-10
nearest airports page soft keys................................11-10
nearest airports using the MFD ..............................11-10
nearest airports using the PFD..................................11-9
navigation/communication equipment ...........................2-2
navigation instruments ......................................... 6-2, 6-19
NDB components ...........................................................9-3
nerves .............................................................................3-5
Newton’s First Law ........................................................4-4
Newton’s Second Law ...................................................4-4
Newton’s Third Law ......................................................4-4
nondirectional radio beacon (NDB) ...............................9-3
nonprecision approaches ..............................................1-23
nose-high attitudes .......................................................7-27
nose-low attitudes ........................................................7-28
Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP) .......................10-2
obstacle departure procedures (ODP) ................ 1-12, 10-5
omnibearing selector (OBS) ........................................9-11
operating on the main battery ............................ 11-5, 11-6
operational errors of ADF ..............................................9-8
optical illusions ..............................................................3-9
featureless terrain illusion ..........................................3-9
fog ................................................................... 3-9, 10-24
ground lighting illusions .............................................3-9
haze .............................................................................3-9
runway width illusion .................................................3-9
runway and terrain slopes illusion ..............................3-9
water refraction...........................................................3-9
other routing ...................................................................1-5
partial panel flight ........................................................7-36
performance instruments ...................................... 6-2, 6-19
pitch .................................................................... 7-25, 7-43
pitch attitude instrument cross-check .............................6-7
pitch control ........................ 6-4, 6-20, 6-22, 7-2, 7-34, 8-3
pitch/power relationship .................................................4-6
pitot/static instruments ...................................................5-3
pitot/static system failure .............................................11-8
pitot/static systems .........................................................5-2
planning the descent and approach ..............................10-8
pneumatic system failure .............................................11-7
pneumatic systems .......................................................5-17
POH/AFM ....................................................................10-2
point in space approach ................................................1-27
position reports .............................................................10-7
postural considerations ...................................................3-7
power .................................................................. 7-26, 7-45
control ....................................... 6-4, 6-8, 6-21, 7-8, 7-39
control during straight-and-level flight.......................8-7
settings .............................................................. 7-9, 7-39
sources ......................................................................5-17
precipitation static ........................................................11-3
precision approaches ....................................................1-23
preferred IFR ..................................................................1-5
pressure altitude .............................................................4-5
pressure indicating systems ..........................................5-17
primary bank ................................................................6-23
primary flight display (PFD) ........................................5-27
primary pitch ................................................................6-22
primary power ..............................................................6-24
primary yaw .................................................................6-23
procedural steps in using control and performance .......6-2
procedure turn ..............................................................7-30
racetrack pattern ...........................................................7-30
radar ...............................................................................2-3
radar and transponders ...................................................2-3
Mode C (altitude reporting) ........................................2-3
radar approaches ........................................................10-15
radar-controlled departures ..........................................10-5
radar limitations ...........................................................9-48
radar monitoring of instrument approaches ...............10-18
radar navigation (ground-based) ..................................9-46
radio altimeters .............................................................5-29
radio principles ...............................................................9-2
recognizing unusual attitudes .......................................7-27
recovery from unusual attitudes ...................................7-27
rectangular cross-check ................................................6-11
reduced vertical separation minimum (RVSM) .............5-7
regions of command .......................................................4-7
control characteristics .................................................4-7
relative wind ...................................................................4-2
remote indicating compass ...........................................5-15
required navigation instrument system inspection .......5-36
required navigation performance .................................9-44
reversal of motion ..........................................................3-8
RNAV instrument approach charts ..............................1-30
route information .........................................................1-10
safety systems ..............................................................5-29
scanning techniques .....................................................6-24
selected radial cross-check ................................. 6-11, 6-24
sensitive altimeter ..........................................................5-3
altimeter errors ...........................................................5-4
cold weather altimeter errors ......................................5-5
inherent altimeter error ...............................................5-5
principle of operation .................................................5-3
sensory systems for orientation ......................................3-2
servo failure .................................................................8-17
side-step maneuver .....................................................10-20
simplified directional facility (SDF) ............................9-42
situational awareness .................................................11-11
sky wave .........................................................................9-2
slip/skid indicator .........................................................7-39
slow-speed flight ............................................................4-8
small airplanes ...............................................................4-9
sources of flight planning information .........................10-2
space wave .....................................................................9-2
spatial disorientation ....................................... 3-2, 3-5, 3-7
special use airspace ........................................................1-2
speed stability .................................................................4-8
normal command ........................................................4-8
reversed command ......................................................4-8
stall warning systems ...................................................4-17
standard 45° procedure turn .........................................7-30
standard entry procedures ..........................................10-11
standard holding pattern (no wind) ............................10-10
standard holding pattern (with wind) .........................10-10
standard instrument departures ....................................10-5
standard rate turns .............................................. 7-19, 7-51
standard terminal arrival routes (STARS) ......... 1-12, 10-9
standby battery .............................................................11-6
static pressure .................................................................5-2
station passage ...............................................................9-5
steep turns .......................................................... 7-22, 7-53
straight-and-level flight ........................6-22, 7-2, 7-34, 8-3
common errors ......................................... 7-12, 7-43, 8-7
straight climbs and descents ............................... 7-14, 7-46
common errors ....................................... 7-17, 7-50, 8-13
straight climbs (constant airspeed and constant rate) ..8-10
straight descents (constant airspeed and
constant rate) ..............................................................8-12
substitutes for inoperative or unusable components ..10-10
synthetic vision ............................................................5-28
systems preflight procedures ........................................5-36
tailplane stall symptoms ...............................................4-16
teardrop patterns ...........................................................7-31
techniques for electrical usage ........................... 11-5, 11-6
temporary flight restrictions (TFRS) ..............................1-4
terminal arrival area (TAA) .........................................1-18
terminal procedures publications .................................1-12
departure procedures ................................................1-12
marginal identification ..............................................1-12
standard terminal arrival routes ................................1-12
terminal radar approach control (TRACON) .................2-6
terrain alerting systems ................................................5-34
terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS) ..........5-34
the four-step process used to change attitude ..............6-19
adjust ........................................................................6-20
cross-check ...............................................................6-20
establish ....................................................................6-19
trim ...........................................................................6-20
tilting to right or left .......................................................3-8
timed approaches from a holding fix .........................10-18
timed turns ................................................ 7-21, 7-53, 8-13
time factors .................................................................10-12
tower en route control (TEC) ................................. 1-6, 2-7
tracking ..........................................................................9-5
tracking to and from the station ...................................9-14
traditional navigation systems ........................................9-3
traffic advisory systems ................................................5-29
traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) ...5-30
traffic alert systems ......................................................5-30
traffic avoidance .........................................................11-12
traffic avoidance systems .............................................5-30
traffic information system ............................................5-29
transponders ...................................................................2-3
trim .....................................................4-8, 6-20, 7-26, 7-45
control .........................................................................6-8
technique ........................................................ 7-12, 7-43
turn-and-slip indicator .......................................... 5-20, 7-8
turn coordinator .................................................... 5-21, 7-7
turn coordinator/turn-and-slip indicator .........................6-8
turn indicator ........................................................ 5-20, 8-7
turn rate indicator .........................................................7-38
turns..................................................4-10, 7-19, 7-51, 8-13
common errors ................................................ 7-25, 8-15
coordination of rudder and aileron controls .............4-11
radius of turn ............................................................4-11
rate of turn ................................................................4-11
turns to predetermined headings ............... 7-20, 7-52, 8-13
unforecast adverse weather ..........................................11-2
unusual attitude recovery protection ............................7-55
unusual attitudes ...........................................................8-16
unusual attitudes and recoveries ..................................7-26
common errors .......................................... 7-28, 7-58, 8-16
vacuum pump systems .................................................5-17
venturi tube systems .....................................................5-17
vertical card magnetic compass ...................................5-15
vertical descent angle (VDA) .......................................1-23
vertical speed indicator (VSI) ..................5-8, 6-5, 7-4, 8-5
very high frequency omnidirectional range (VOR) .......9-8
function .....................................................................9-11
operational errors ......................................................9-14
receiver accuracy check............................................9-16
test facility (VOT) ....................................................9-16
vestibular illusions .........................................................3-5
coriolis illusion ...........................................................3-6
elevator illusion ..........................................................3-6
graveyard spiral ..........................................................3-6
inversion illusion ........................................................3-6
leans, the .....................................................................3-5
somatogravic illusion .................................................3-6
VFR-on-top ................................................................10-26
VFR over-the-top .......................................................10-26
visibility figures ...........................................................1-23
vision under dim and bright illumination .......................3-3
visual illusions ...............................................................3-7
false horizon ...............................................................3-7
autokinesis ..................................................................3-7
VOR accuracy ..............................................................9-16
VOR components .........................................................9-10
VOR/DME RNAV .......................................................9-22
components ...............................................................9-23
function .....................................................................9-23
errors .........................................................................9-24
VSI tape .......................................................................7-36
weather avoidance assistance .......................................2-11
weather conditions .....................................................10-22
thunderstorms .........................................................10-24
turbulence ...............................................................10-22
volcanic ash ............................................................10-24
wind shear...............................................................10-25
weather information and communication features .......1-10
wet-type vacuum pump ................................................5-17
wide area augmentation system (WAAS) ....................9-32
wind shear ..................................................................10-25
windshields ..................................................................4-17
wing................................................................................4-2