XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34
VOR 1
270°
TAS 100KT
OAT 7°C
ALERTS
13.7
15.0
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
Figure 5-58. Power Control - Straight and level flight (airspeed decreasing).
Primary
power
as throttle
is set
Primary bank
Primary pitch
Primary power as
A/S approaches
desired value
Figure 7-58. Straight-and-level flight (airspeed decreasing).
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34
VOR 1
270°
TAS 100KT
OAT 7°C
ALERTS
13.7
18.0
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
Supporting
power
Primary bank
Primary pitchPrimary power
Figure 5-59. Power Control - Straight and level flight (reduced airspeed stabilized).
4 Figure 7-59. Straight-and-level flight (reduced airspeed stabilized).
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34
13.7
23.0
VOR 1
270°
TAS 100KT
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
Figure 5-60. Cross-check supporting instruments.
ALERTS
Figure 7-60. Cross-check supporting instruments.
1. Maintain rpm at 2,500, since a high power setting is
used in full drag configuration.
2. Reduce manifold pressure to 10 "Hg. As the airspeed
decreases, increase cross-check speed.
3. Make trim adjustments for an increased angle of attack
and decrease in torque.
4. Lower the gear at 115 knots. The nose may tend to
pitch down and the rate of deceleration increases.
Increase pitch attitude to maintain constant altitude
and trim off some of the back-elevator pressures.
If full flaps are lowered at 105 knots, cross-check,
interpretation, and control must be very rapid. A
simpler technique is to stabilize attitude with gear
down before lowering the flaps.
5. Since 18 "Hg manifold pressure holds level flight at
100 knots with the gear down, increase power smoothly
to that setting as the ASI shows approximately 105
knots, and retrim. The attitude indicator now shows
approximately two-and-a-half bar width nose-high in
straight-and-level flight.
6. Actuate the flap control and simultaneously increase
power to the predetermined setting (25 "Hg) for the
desired airspeed, and trim off the pressures necessary
to hold constant altitude and heading. The attitude
indicator now shows a bar width nose-low in straight-
and-level flight at 95 knots.
airspeed limitations specified in the POH/AFM for gear and
flap operation.
Sudden and exaggerated attitude changes may be necessary
in order to maintain straight-and-level flight as the landing
gear is extended and the flaps are lowered in some airplanes.
The nose tends to pitch down with gear extension, and when
flaps are lowered, lift increases momentarily (at partial flap
settings) followed by a marked increase in drag as the flaps
near maximum extension.
Control technique varies according to the lift and drag
characteristics of each airplane. Accordingly, knowledge of
the power settings and trim changes associated with different
combinations of airspeed, gear, and flap configurations
reduces instrument cross-check and interpretation problems.
[Figure 7-60]
For example, assume that in straight-and-level flight
instruments indicate 120 knots with power at 23 "Hg
manifold pressure/2,300 revolutions per minute (rpm), gear
and flaps up. After reduction in airspeed, with gear and flaps
fully extended, straight-and-level flight at the same altitude
requires 25 "Hg manifold pressure/2,500 rpm. Maximum
gear extension speed is 115 knots; maximum flap extension
speed is 105 knots. Airspeed reduction to 95 knots, gear and
flaps down, can be made in the following manner:
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34
13.7
18.0
VOR 1
270°
TAS 100KT
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
Figure 5-61. Insufficient cross-check
ALERTS
270°
Figure 7-61. Insufficient cross-check. The problem is power and not nose-high. In this case, the pilot decreased pitch inappropriately.
Trim Technique
Trim control is one of the most important flight habits to
cultivate. Trimming refers to relieving any control pressures
that need to be applied by the pilot to the control surfaces to
maintain a desired flight attitude. The desired result is for the
pilot to be able to take his or her hands off the control surfaces
and have the aircraft remain in the current attitude. Once the
aircraft is trimmed for hands-off flight, the pilot is able to
devote more time to monitoring the flight instruments and
other aircraft systems.
In order to trim the aircraft, apply pressure to the control surface
that needs trimming and roll the trim wheel in the direction
pressure is being held. Relax the pressure that is being applied to
the control surface and monitor the primary instrument for that
attitude. If the desired performance is achieved, fly hands off. If
additional trimming is required, redo the trimming steps.
An aircraft is trimmed for a specific airspeed, not pitch attitude
or altitude. Any time an aircraft changes airspeed, there is
a need to re-trim. For example, an aircraft is flying at 100
knots straight-and-level. An increase of 50 rpm causes the
airspeed to increase. As the airspeed increases, additional lift
is generated and the aircraft climbs. Once the additional thrust
has stabilized at some higher altitude, the airspeed will again
stabilize at 100 knots.
This demonstrates how trim is associated with airspeed and
not altitude. If the initial altitude is to be maintained, forward
pressure would need to be applied to the control wheel while
the trim wheel needs to be rolled forward to eliminate any
control pressures. Rolling forward on the trim wheel is equal
to increasing for a trimmed airspeed. Any time the airspeed
is changed, re-trimming is required. Trimming can be
accomplished during any transitional period; however, prior
to final trimming, the airspeed must be held constant. If the
airspeed is allowed to change, the trim is not adjusted properly
and the altitude varies until the airspeed for which the aircraft
is trimmed is achieved.
Common Errors in Straight-and-Level Flight
Pitch
Pitch errors usually result from the following errors:
1. Improper adjustment of the yellow chevron (aircraft
symbol) on the attitude indicator.
Corrective Action: Once the aircraft has leveled off and
the airspeed has stabilized, make small corrections to
the pitch attitude to achieve the desired performance.
Cross-check the supporting instruments for validation.
2. Insufficient cross-check and interpretation of pitch
instruments. [Figure 7-61]
Example: The airspeed indication is low. The pilot,
believing a nose-high pitch attitude exists, applies
forward pressure without noting that a low power setting
is the cause of the airspeed discrepancy.
Corrective Action: Increase the rate of cross-check of all
the supporting flight instruments. Airspeed and altitude
should be stabilized before making a control input.
3. Acceptance of deviations.
Example: A pilot has an altitude range of ±100 feet
according to the practical test standards for straight-and
level-flight. When the pilot notices that the altitude has
deviated by 60 feet, no correction is made because the
altitude is holding steady and is within the standards.
Corrective Action: The pilot should cross-check the
instruments and, when a deviation is noted, prompt
corrective actions should be taken in order to bring the
aircraft back to the desired altitude. Deviations from
altitude should be expected but not accepted.
4. Overcontrolling—excessive pitch changes.
Example: A pilot notices a deviation in altitude. In an
attempt to quickly return to altitude, the pilot makes a
large pitch change. The large pitch change destabilizes
the attitude and compounds the error.
Corrective Action: Small, smooth corrections
should be made in order to recover to the desired
altitude (0.5° to 2° depending on the severity of the
deviation). Instrument flying is comprised of small
corrections to maintain the aircraft attitude. When
flying in IMC, a pilot should avoid making large
attitude changes in order to avoid loss of aircraft
control and spatial disorientation.
5. Failure to maintain pitch corrections.
Pitch changes need to be made promptly and held
for validation. Many times pilots make corrections
and allow the pitch attitude to change due to not
trimming the aircraft. It is imperative that any time a
pitch change is made; the trim is readjusted in order
to eliminate any control pressures that are being held.
A rapid cross-check aids in avoiding any deviations
from the desired pitch attitude.
Example: A pilot notices a deviation in altitude. A
change in the pitch attitude is accomplished but no
adjustment to the trim is made. Distractions cause
the pilot to slow the cross-check and an inadvertent
reduction in the pressure to the control column
commences. The pitch attitude then changes, thus
complicating recovery to the desired altitude.
Corrective Action: The pilot should initiate a pitch
change and then immediately trim the aircraft to
relieve any control pressures. A rapid cross-check
should be established in order to validate the desired
performance is being achieved.
6. Fixation during cross-check.
Devoting an unequal amount of time to one instrument
either for interpretation or assigning too much
importance to an instrument. Equal amounts of time
should be spent during the cross-check to avoid an
unnoticed deviation in one of the aircraft attitudes.
Example: A pilot makes a correction to the pitch
attitude and then devotes all of the attention to the
altimeter to determine if the pitch correction is valid.
During this time, no attention is paid to the heading
indicator, which shows a turn to the left. [Figure 7-62]
Corrective Action: The pilot should monitor all
instrumentation during the cross-check. Do not fixate
on one instrument waiting for validation. Continue to
scan all instruments to avoid allowing the aircraft to
begin a deviation in another attitude.
Heading
Heading errors usually result from but are not limited to the
following errors:
1. Failure to cross-check the heading indicator, especially
during changes in power or pitch attitude.
2. Misinterpretation of changes in heading, with resulting
corrections in the wrong direction.
3. Failure to note and remember a preselected heading.
4. Failure to observe the rate of heading change and its
relation to bank attitude.
5. Overcontrolling in response to heading changes,
especially during changes in power settings.
6. Anticipating heading changes with premature
application of rudder pressure.
7. Failure to correct small heading deviations. Unless
zero error in heading is the goal, a pilot will tolerate
larger and larger deviations. Correction of a 1 degree
error takes far less time and concentration than
correction of a 20° error.
8. Correcting with improper bank attitude. If correcting
a 10° heading error with a 20° bank correction, the
aircraft will roll past the desired heading before the
bank is established, requiring another correction in
the opposite direction. Do not multiply existing errors
with errors in corrective technique.
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34
13.7
23.0
VOR 1
270°
TAS 100KT
ALERTS
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
Figure 5-62. Fixation during cross-check
Figure 7-62. The pilot has fixated on pitch and altitude, leaving bank indications unattended. Note the trend line to the left.
9. Failure to note the cause of a previous heading error
and thus repeating the same error. For example, the
airplane is out of trim with a left wing low tendency.
Repeated corrections for a slight left turn are made,
yet trim is ignored.
Power
Power errors usually result from but are not limited to the
following errors:
1. Failure to become familiar with the aircraft’s specific
power settings and pitch attitudes.
2. Abrupt use of throttle.
3. Failure to lead the airspeed when making power
changes, climbs, or descents.
Example: When leveling off from a descent, increase
the power in order to avoid the airspeed from bleeding
off due to the decrease in momentum of the aircraft.
If the pilot waits to bring in the power until after the
aircraft is established in the level pitch attitude, the
aircraft will have already decreased below the speed
desired, which will require additional adjustment in
the power setting.
4. Fixation on airspeed tape or manifold pressure
indications during airspeed changes, resulting in
erratic control of airspeed, power, as well as pitch and
bank attitudes.
Trim
Trim errors usually result from the following faults:
1. Improper adjustment of seat or rudder pedals for
comfortable position of legs and feet. Tension in the
ankles makes it difficult to relax rudder pressures.
2. Confusion about the operation of trim devices, which
differ among various airplane types. Some trim
wheels are aligned appropriately with the airplane’s
axes; others are not. Some rotate in a direction
contrary to expectations.
3. Failure to understand the principles of trim and
that the aircraft is being trimmed for airspeed, not a
pitch attitude.
4. Faulty sequence in trim techniques. Trim should be
utilized to relieve control pressures, not to change
pitch attitudes. The proper trim technique has the pilot
holding the control wheel first and then trimming to
relieve any control pressures. Continuous trim changes
are required as the power setting is changed. Utilize
the trim continuously, but in small amounts.
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL10:12:34
INSET PFD CDI XPDR IDENT TMR/REF NRST ALERTS
13.7
25.0
VOR 1
270°
TAS 126KT
OAT 6°C
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
Current procedure
Before procedure
23.0
Primary
power
Primary bank
Primary pitch
Figure 5-19. Constant airspeed climb from cruise airspeed
Figure 7-63. Constant airspeed climb from cruise airspeed.
Straight Climbs and Descents
Each aircraft has a specific pitch attitude and airspeed that
corresponds to the most efficient climb rate for a specified
weight. The POH/AFM contains the speeds that produce the
desired climb. These numbers are based on maximum gross
weight. Pilots must be familiar with how the speeds vary with
weight so they can compensate during flight.
Entry
Constant Airspeed Climb From Cruise Airspeed
To enter a constant airspeed climb from cruise airspeed,
slowly and smoothly apply aft elevator pressure in order
to raise the yellow chevron (aircraft symbol) until the tip
points to the desired degree of pitch. [Figure 7-63] Hold
the aft control pressure and smoothly increase the power
to the climb power setting. This increase in power may be
initiated either prior to initiating the pitch change or after
having established the desired pitch setting. Consult the POH/
AFM for specific climb power settings if anything other than
a full power climb is desired. Pitch attitudes vary depending
on the type of aircraft being flown. As airspeed decreases,
control forces need to be increased in order to compensate
for the additional elevator deflection required to maintain
attitude. Utilize trim to eliminate any control pressures. By
effectively using trim, the pilot is better able to maintain the
desired pitch without constant attention. The pilot is thus
able to devote more time to maintaining an effective scan of
all instrumentation.
The VSI should be utilized to monitor the performance of the
aircraft. With a smooth pitch transition, the VSI tape should
begin to show an immediate trend upward and stabilize on a
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL10:12:34
INSET PFD CDI XPDR IDENT TMR/REF NRST ALERTS
13.7
18.0
VOR 1
270°
TAS 106KT
OAT 6°C
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
Current procedure
Before procedure
23.0
Supporting pitch and bank
Supporting
power
Primary bank
Primary pitch
Primary power
Figure 7-64. Constant airspeed climb from established airspeed.
rate of climb equivalent to the pitch and power setting being
utilized. Depending on current weight and atmospheric
conditions, this rate will be different. This requires the pilot to
be knowledgeable of how weight and atmospheric conditions
affect aircraft performance.
Once the aircraft is stabilized at a constant airspeed and pitch
attitude, the primary flight instrument for pitch will be the ASI
and the primary bank instrument will be the heading indicator.
The primary power instrument will be the tachometer or the
manifold pressure gauge depending on the aircraft type. If the
pitch attitude is correct, the airspeed should slowly decrease to
the desired speed. If there is any variation in airspeed, make
small pitch changes until the aircraft is stabilized at the desired
speed. Any change in airspeed requires a trim adjustment.
Constant Airspeed Climb from Established Airspeed
In order to enter a constant airspeed climb, first complete the
airspeed reduction from cruise airspeed to climb airspeed.
Maintain straight-and-level flight as the airspeed is reduced.
The entry to the climb is similar to the entry from cruise
airspeed with the exception that the power must be increased
when the pitch attitude is raised. [Figure 7-64] Power added
after the pitch change shows a decrease in airspeed due to
the increased drag encountered. Power added prior to a pitch
change causes the airspeed to increase due to the excess thrust.
Constant Rate Climbs
Constant rate climbs are very similar to the constant airspeed
climbs in the way the entry is made. As power is added,
smoothly apply elevator pressure to raise the yellow chevron
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL10:12:34
INSET PFD CDI XPDR IDENT TMR/REF NRST ALERTS
13.7
23.0
VOR 1
270°
TAS 116KT
OAT 6°C
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
Supporting pitch and bank Supporting pitch until
desired vertical speed
is achieved, then it
becomes the primary
instrument for pitch.
Primary bank
Primary for pitch until
desired vertical speed
is achieved. Then
airspeed becomes
primary for power.
Figure 7-65. Constant rate climbs.
to the desired pitch attitude that equates to the desired vertical
speed rate. The primary instrument for pitch during the initial
portion of the maneuver is the ASI until the vertical speed
rate stabilizes and then the VSI tape becomes primary. The
ASI then becomes the primary instrument for power. If any
deviation from the desired vertical speed is noted, small
pitch changes will be required in order to achieve the desired
vertical speed. [Figure 7-65]
When making changes to compensate for deviations in
performance, pitch, and power, pilot inputs need to be
coordinated to maintain a stable flight attitude. For instance,
if the vertical speed is lower than desired but the airspeed
is correct, an increase in pitch momentarily increases the
vertical speed. However, the increased drag quickly starts
to degrade the airspeed if no increase in power is made. A
change to any one variable mandates a coordinated change
in the other.
Conversely, if the airspeed is low and the pitch is high, a
reduction in the pitch attitude alone may solve the problem.
Lower the nose of the aircraft very slightly to see if a power
reduction is necessary. Being familiar with the pitch and
power settings for the aircraft aids in achieving precise
attitude instrument flying.
Leveling Off
Leveling off from a climb requires a reduction in the pitch
prior to reaching the desired altitude. If no change in pitch
is made until reaching the desired altitude, the momentum
of the aircraft causes the aircraft to continue past the desired
altitude throughout the transition to a level pitch attitude. The
amount of lead to be applied depends on the vertical speed
rate. A higher vertical speed requires a larger lead for level
off. A good rule of thumb to utilize is to lead the level off
by 10 percent of the vertical speed rate (1,000 fpm ÷ 10 =
100 feet lead).
To level off at the desired altitude, refer to the attitude display
and apply smooth forward elevator pressure toward the desired
level pitch attitude while monitoring the VSI and altimeter
tapes. The rates should start to slow and airspeed should
begin to increase. Maintain the climb power setting until the
airspeed approaches the desired cruise airspeed. Continue to
monitor the altimeter to maintain the desired altitude as the
airspeed increases. Prior to reaching the cruise airspeed, the
power must be reduced to avoid overshooting the desired
speed. The amount of lead time that is required depends on
the speed at which the aircraft accelerates. Utilization of the
airspeed trend indicator can assist by showing how quickly
the aircraft will arrive at the desired speed.