Aeronautical decision making (ADM) is a systematic
approach to the mental process used by pilots to con-
sistently determine the best course of action in response
to a given set of circumstances. The importance of
learning effective ADM skills cannot be overempha-
sized. While progress is continually being made in the
advancement of pilot training methods, aircraft equip-
ment and systems, and services for pilots, accidents
still occur. Despite all the changes in technology to
improve flight safety, one factor remains the
same—the human factor. It is estimated that approxi-
mately 65 percent of the total rotorcraft accidents are
human factors related.
Historically, the term “pilot error” has been used to
describe the causes of these accidents. Pilot error
means that an action or decision made by the pilot was
the cause of, or a contributing factor that lead to, the
accident. This definition also includes the pilot’s fail-
ure to make a decision or take action. From a broader
perspective, the phrase “human factors related” more
aptly describes these accidents since it is usually not a
single decision that leads to an accident, but a chain of
events triggered by a number of factors.
The poor judgment chain, sometimes referred to as the
“error chain,” is a term used to describe this concept of
contributing factors in a human factors related acci-
dent. Breaking one link in the chain normally is all that
is necessary to change the outcome of the sequence of
events. The following is an example of the type of sce-
nario illustrating the poor judgment chain.
A helicopter pilot, with limited experience flying in
adverse weather, wants to be back at his home airport
in time to attend an important social affair. He is
already 30 minutes late. Therefore, he decides not to
refuel his helicopter, since he should get back home
with at least 20 minutes of reserve. In addition, in spite
of his inexperience, he decides to fly through an area of
possible thunderstorms in order to get back just before
dark. Arriving in the thunderstorm area, he encounters
lightning, turbulence, and heavy clouds. Night is
approaching, and the thick cloud cover makes it very
dark. With his limited fuel supply, he is not able to cir-
cumnavigate the thunderstorms. In the darkness and
turbulence, the pilot becomes spatially disoriented
while attempting to continue flying with visual refer-
ence to the ground instead of using what instruments
he has to make a 180° turn. In the ensuing crash, the
pilot is seriously injured and the helicopter completely
destroyed.
By discussing the events that led to this accident, we
can understand how a series of judgmental errors
contributed to the final outcome of this flight. For
example, one of the first elements that affected the
pilot’s flight was a decision regarding the weather. The
pilot knew there were going to be thunderstorms in the
area, but he had flown near thunderstorms before and
never had an accident.
Next, he let his desire to arrive at his destination on
time override his concern for a safe flight. For one
thing, in order to save time, he did not refuel the heli-
copter, which might have allowed him the opportunity
to circumnavigate the bad weather. Then he overesti-
mated his flying abilities and decided to use a route that
took him through a potential area of thunderstorm
activity. Next, the pilot pressed on into obviously dete-
riorating conditions instead of changing course or
landing prior to his destination.
On numerous occasions during the flight, the pilot
could have made effective decisions that may have pre-
vented this accident. However, as the chain of events
unfolded, each poor decision left him with fewer and
fewer options. Making sound decisions is the key to
preventing accidents. Traditional pilot training has
Human Factors—The study of how
people interact with their environ-
ments. In the case of general avia-
tion, it is the study of how pilot
performance is influenced by such
issues as the design of cockpits, the
function of the organs of the body,
the effects of emotions, and the
interaction and communication
with the other participants of the
aviation community, such as other
crew members and air traffic con-
trol personnel.
emphasized flying skills, knowledge of the aircraft, and
familiarity with regulations. ADM training focuses on
the decision-making process and the factors that affect
a pilot’s ability to make effective choices.
ORIGINS OF ADM TRAINING
The airlines developed some of the first training pro-
grams that focused on improving aeronautical decision
making. Human factors-related accidents motivated the
airline industry to implement crew resource manage-
ment (CRM) training for flight crews. The focus of
CRM programs is the effective use of all available
resources; human resources, hardware, and informa-
tion. Human resources include all groups routinely
working with the cockpit crew (or pilot) who are
involved in decisions that are required to operate a
flight safely. These groups include, but are not limited
to: ground personnel, dispatchers, cabin crewmembers,
maintenance personnel, external-load riggers, and air
traffic controllers. Although the CRM concept origi-
nated as airlines developed ways of facilitating crew
cooperation to improve decision making in the cockpit,
CRM principles, such as workload management, situa-
tional awareness, communication, the leadership role
of the captain, and crewmember coordination have
direct application to the general aviation cockpit. This
also includes single pilot operations since pilots of
small aircraft, as well as crews of larger aircraft, must
make effective use of all available resources—human
resources, hardware, and information. You can also
refer to AC 60-22, Aeronautical Decision Making ,
which provides background references, definitions, and
other pertinent information about ADM training in the
general aviation environment. [Figure 14-1]
DEFINITIONS
ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in
response to a given set of circumstances.
ATTITUDE is a personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in a given manner that can,
nevertheless, be changed or modified through training as sort of a mental shortcut to decision making.
ATTITUDE MANAGEMENT is the ability to recognize hazardous attitudes in oneself and the willingness to modify them as
necessary through the application of an appropriate antidote thought.
HEADWORK is required to accomplish a conscious, rational thought process when making decisions. Good decision making
involves risk identification and assessment, information processing, and problem solving.
JUDGMENT is the mental process of recognizing and analyzing all pertinent information in a particular situation, a rational
evaluation of alternative actions in response to it, and a timely decision on which action to take.
PERSONALITY is the embodiment of personal traits and characteristics of an individual that are set at a very early age and
extremely resistant to change.
POOR JUDGMENT CHAIN is a series of mistakes that may lead to an accident or incident. Two basic principles generally
associated with the creation of a poor judgment chain are: (1) One bad decision often leads to another; and (2) as a string of bad
decisions grows, it reduces the number of subsequent alternatives for continued safe flight. ADM is intended to break the poor
judgment chain before it can cause an accident or incident.
RISK ELEMENTS IN ADM take into consideration the four fundamental risk elements: the pilot, the aircraft, the environment, and
the type of operation that comprise any given aviation situation.
RISK MANAGEMENT is the part of the decision making process which relies on situational awareness, problem recognition, and
good judgment to reduce risks associated with each flight.
SITUATIONAL AWARENESS is the accurate perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four
fundamental risk elements that affect safety before, during, and after the flight.
SKILLS and PROCEDURES are the procedural, psychomotor, and perceptual skills used to control a specific aircraft or its
systems. They are the airmanship abilities that are gained through conventional training, are perfected, and become almost
automatic through experience.
STRESS MANAGEMENT is the personal analysis of the kinds of stress experienced while flying, the application of appropriate
stress assessment tools, and other coping mechanisms.
CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) is the application of team management concepts in the flight deck environment. It
was initially known as cockpit resource management, but as CRM programs evolved to include cabin crews, maintenance
personnel, and others, the phrase crew resource management was adopted. This includes single pilots, as in most general
aviation aircraft. Pilots of small aircraft, as well as crews of larger aircraft, must make effective use of all available resources;
human resources, hardware, and information. A current definition includes all groups routinely working with the cockpit crew who
are involved in decisions required to operate a flight safely. These groups include, but are not limited to: pilots, dispatchers, cabin
crewmembers, maintenance personnel, and air traffic controllers. CRM is one way of addressing the challenge of optimizing the
human/machine interface and accompanying interpersonal activities.
Figure 14-1. These terms are used in AC 60-22 to explain concepts used in ADM training.
need to be taken to resolve the situation in the time
available. The expected outcome of each possible
action should be considered and the risks assessed
before you decide on a response to the situation.
Your first thought was to pull up on the collective and
yank back on the cyclic, but after weighing the conse-
quences of possibly losing rotor r.p.m. and not being
able to maintain the climb rate sufficiently enough to
clear the canyon wall, which is now only a hundred
yards away, you realize that your only course is to try
to turn back to the landing zone on the canyon floor.
IMPLEMENTING THE DECISION AND
EVALUATING THE OUTCOME
Although a decision may be reached and a course of
action implemented, the decision-making process is not
complete. It is important to think ahead and determine
how the decision could affect other phases of the flight.
As the flight progresses, you must continue to evaluate
the outcome of the decision to ensure that it is produc-
ing the desired result.
As you make your turn to the downwind, the airspeed
drops nearly to zero, and the helicopter becomes very
difficult to control. At this point, you must increase air-
speed in order to maintain translational lift, but since
the CG is aft of limits, you need to apply more forward
cyclic than usual. As you approach the landing zone
with a high rate of descent, you realize that you are in a
potential settling-with-power situation if you try to
trade airspeed for altitude and lose ETL. Therefore, you
will probably not be able to terminate the approach in a
hover. You decide to make as shallow of an approach as
possible and perform a run-on landing.
The decision making process normally consists of sev-
eral steps before you choose a course of action. To help
you remember the elements of the decision-making
process, a six-step model has been developed using the
acronym “DECIDE.” [Figure 14-2]
THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS
An understanding of the decision-making process pro-
vides you with a foundation for developing ADM
skills. Some situations, such as engine failures, require
you to respond immediately using established proce-
dures with little time for detailed analysis. Traditionally,
pilots have been well trained to react to emergencies,
but are not as well prepared to make decisions that
require a more reflective response. Typically during a
flight, you have time to examine any changes that
occur, gather information, and assess risk before reach-
ing a decision. The steps leading to this conclusion
constitute the decision-making process.
DEFINING THE PROBLEM
Problem definition is the first step in the decision-making
process. Defining the problem begins with recognizing
that a change has occurred or that an expected change
did not occur. A problem is perceived first by the
senses, then is distinguished through insight and expe-
rience. These same abilities, as well as an objective
analysis of all available information, are used to deter-
mine the exact nature and severity of the problem.
While doing a hover check after picking up fire fight-
ers at the bottom of a canyon, you realize that you are
only 20 pounds under maximum gross weight. What
you failed to realize is that they had stowed some of
their heaviest gear in the baggage compartment,
which shifted the CG slightly behind the aft limits.
Since weight and balance had never created any
problems for you in the past, you did not bother to cal-
culate CG and power required. You did, however, try
to estimate it by remembering the figures from earlier
in the morning at the base camp. At a 5,000 foot
density altitude and maximum gross weight, the per-
formance charts indicated you had plenty of excess
power. Unfortunately, the temperature was 93°F and
the pressure altitude at the pick up point was 6,200
feet (DA = 9,600 feet). Since there was enough power
for the hover check, you felt there was sufficient
power to take off.
Even though the helicopter accelerated slowly during
the takeoff, the distance between the helicopter and the
ground continued to increase. However, when you
attempted to establish the best rate of climb speed, the
nose wanted to pitch up to a higher than normal atti-
tude, and you noticed that the helicopter was not gain-
ing enough altitude in relation to the canyon wall a
couple hundred yards ahead.
CHOOSING A COURSE OF ACTION
After the problem has been identified, you must evalu-
ate the need to react to it and determine the actions that
Detect the fact that a change has occurred.
Estimate the need to counter or react to the change.
Choose a desirable outcome for the success of the flight.
Identify actions which could successfully control the change.
Do the necessary action to adapt to the change.
Evaluate the effect of the action.
DECIDE MODEL
Figure 14-2. The DECIDE model can provide a framework for
effective decision making.
RISK MANAGEMENT
During each flight, decisions must be made regarding
events that involve interactions between the four risk
elements—the pilot in command, the aircraft, the envi-
ronment, and the operation. The decision-making
process involves an evaluation of each of these risk ele-
ments to achieve an accurate perception of the flight
situation. [Figure 14-3]
One of the most important decisions that a pilot in com-
mand must make is the go/no-go decision. Evaluating
each of these risk elements can help you decide
whether a flight should be conducted or continued. Let
us evaluate the four risk elements and how they affect
our decision making regarding the following situations.
Pilot— As a pilot, you must continually make decisions
about your own competency, condition of health, mental
and emotional state, level of fatigue, and many other
variables. For example, you are called early in the morn-
ing to make a long flight. You have had only a few hours
of sleep, and are concerned that the congestion you feel
could be the onset of a cold. Are you safe to fly?
Aircraft— You will frequently base decisions on your
evaluations of the aircraft, such as its powerplant, per-
formance, equipment, fuel state, or airworthiness. Picture
yourself in this situation: you are en route to an oil rig an
hour’s flight from shore, and you have just passed the
shoreline. Then you notice the oil temperature at the high
end of the caution range. Should you continue out to sea,
or return to the nearest suitable heliport/airport?
Environment— This encompasses many elements not
pilot or aircraft related. It can include such factors as
weather, air traffic control, navaids, terrain, takeoff and
Risk Elements—The four compo-
nents of a flight that make up the
overall situation.
NTSB—National Transportation
Safety Board.
landing areas, and surrounding obstacles. Weather is
one element that can change drastically over time and
distance. Imagine you are ferrying a helicopter cross
country and encounter unexpected low clouds and rain
in an area of rising terrain. Do you try to stay under
them and “scud run,” or turn around, stay in the clear,
and obtain current weather information?
Operation— The interaction between you as the pilot,
your aircraft, and the environment is greatly influenced
by the purpose of each flight operation. You must eval-
uate the three previous areas to decide on the desirabil-
ity of undertaking or continuing the flight as planned. It
is worth asking yourself why the flight is being made,
how critical is it to maintain the schedule, and is the
trip worth the risks? For instance, you are tasked to take
some technicians into rugged mountains for a routine
survey, and the weather is marginal. Would it be prefer-
able to wait for better conditions to ensure a safe flight?
How would the priorities change if you were tasked to
search for cross-country skiers who had become lost in
deep snow and radioed for help?
ASSESSING RISK
Examining NTSB reports and other accident research
can help you to assess risk more effectively. For exam-
ple, the accident rate decreases by nearly 50 percent once
a pilot obtains 100 hours, and continues to decrease until
the 1,000 hour level. The data suggest that for the first
500 hours, pilots flying VFR at night should establish
higher personal limitations than are required by the reg-
ulations and, if applicable, apply instrument flying skills
in this environment. [Figure 14-4]
Studies also indicate the types of flight activities that
are most likely to result in the most serious accidents.
The majority of fatal general aviation accident causes
fall under the categories of maneuvering flight,
approaches, takeoff/initial climb, and weather. Delving
deeper into accident statistics can provide some impor-
tant details that can help you to understand the risks
involved with specific flying situations. For example,
maneuvering flight is one of the largest single produc-
Figure 14-3. When situationally aware, you have an overview of the total operation and are not fixated on one perceived signifi-
cant factor.
RISK ELEMENTS
Pilot Aircraft Environment Operation
Factors, such as weather,
airport conditions, and the
availability of air traffic control
services must be examined.
The aircraft's performance,
limitations, equipment, and
airworthiness must be deter-
mined.
The pilot's fitness to fly must
be evaluated including
competency in the aircraft,
currency, and flight experience.
To maintain situational awareness, an accurate perception must be
attained of how the pilot, aircraft, environment, and operation
combine to affect the flight.
Situation
The purpose of the flight is a
factor which influences the
pilot's decision on undertaking
or continuing the flight.
ers of fatal accidents. Fatal accidents, which occur
during approach, often happen at night or in IFR condi-
tions. Takeoff/initial climb accidents frequently are due
to the pilot’s lack of awareness of the effects of density
altitude on aircraft performance or other improper take-
off planning resulting in loss of control during, or
shortly after takeoff. The majority of weather-related
accidents occur after attempted VFR flight into IFR
conditions.
FACTORS AFFECTING DECISION
MAKING
It is important to point out the fact that being familiar
with the decision-making process does not ensure that
you will have the good judgment to be a safe pilot. The
ability to make effective decisions as pilot in
command depends on a number of factors. Some
circumstances, such as the time available to make a
decision, may be beyond your control. However, you
can learn to recognize those factors that can be man-
aged, and learn skills to improve decision-making
ability and judgment.
PILOT SELF-ASSESSMENT
The pilot in command of an aircraft is directly responsi-
ble for, and is the final authority as to, the operation of
that aircraft. In order to effectively exercise that respon-
sibility and make effective decisions regarding the
outcome of a flight, you must have an understanding of
your limitations. Your performance during a flight is
affected by many factors, such as health, recency of
experience, knowledge, skill level, and attitude.
Exercising good judgment begins prior to taking the
controls of an aircraft. Often, pilots thoroughly check
their aircraft to determine airworthiness, yet do not
evaluate their own fitness for flight. Just as a checklist
is used when preflighting an aircraft, a personal
checklist based on such factors as experience, cur-
rency, and comfort level can help determine if you are
prepared for a particular flight. Specifying when
refresher training should be accomplished and desig-
nating weather minimums, which may be higher than
those listed in Title 14 of the Code of Federal
Regulations (14 CFR) part 91, are elements that may
be included on a personal checklist. In addition to a
review of personal limitations, you should use the I’M
SAFE Checklist to further evaluate your fitness for
flight. [Figure 14-5]
RECOGNIZING HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES
Being fit to fly depends on more than just your physi-
cal condition and recency of experience. For example,
attitude affects the quality of your decisions. Attitude
can be defined as a personal motivational predisposi-
tion to respond to persons, situations, or events in a
given manner. Studies have identified five hazardous
attitudes that can interfere with your ability to make
sound decisions and exercise authority properly.
[Figure 14-6]
Hazardous attitudes can lead to poor decision making
and actions that involve unnecessary risk. You must
examine your decisions carefully to ensure that your
choices have not been influenced by hazardous
attitudes, and you must be familiar with positive alter-
natives to counteract the hazardous attitudes. These
substitute attitudes are referred to as antidotes. During
a flight operation, it is important to be able to recognize
<51 101 201 501 <1000 <2000 10,000 Total
Pilot's Total Time (Hours)
Night VFR Accident Rate
Per 100,000 Hours
Figure 14-4. Statistical data can identify operations that have
more risk. Illness—Do I have any symptoms?
Medication—Have I been taking prescription or □
over-the-counter drugs?
Stress—Am I under psychological pressure from
the job? Worried about financial matters, health
problems, or family discord?
Fatigue—Am I tired and not adequately rested?
Eating—Am I adequately nourished?
Alcohol—Have I been drinking within 8 hours?
Within 24 hours?
I'M SAFE CHECKLIST
Figure 14-5. Prior to flight, you should assess your fitness,
just as you evaluate the aircraft’s airworthiness.
a hazardous attitude, correctly label the thought, and
then recall its antidote. [Figure 14-7]
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Everyone is stressed to some degree all the time. A cer-
tain amount of stress is good since it keeps a person
alert and prevents complacency. However, effects of
stress are cumulative and, if not coped with adequately,
they eventually add up to an intolerable burden.
Performance generally increases with the onset of
stress, peaks, and then begins to fall off rapidly as stress
levels exceed a person’s ability to cope. The ability to
make effective decisions during flight can be impaired
by stress. Factors, referred to as stressors, can increase
a pilot’s risk of error in the cockpit. [Figure 14-8]
There are several techniques to help manage the accu-
mulation of life stresses and prevent stress overload.
For example, including relaxation time in a busy sched-
ule and maintaining a program of physical fitness can
help reduce stress levels. Learning to manage time
more effectively can help you avoid heavy pressures
imposed by getting behind schedule and not meeting
deadlines. Take an assessment of yourself to determine
your capabilities and limitations and then set realistic
goals. In addition, avoiding stressful situations and
encounters can help you cope with stress.
USE OF RESOURCES
To make informed decisions during flight operations,
you must be aware of the resources found both inside
and outside the cockpit. Since useful tools and sources
of information may not always be readily apparent,
learning to recognize these resources is an essential
part of ADM training. Resources must not only be iden-
THE FIVE HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES
1. Anti-Authority:□
"Don't tell me."□
This attitude is found in people who do not like anyone telling them what to do. In a sense, they
are saying, "No one can tell me what to do." They may be resentful of having someone tell them
what to do, or may regard rules, regulations, and procedures as silly or unnecessary. However, it
is always your prerogative to question authority if you feel it is in error.□
□
This is the attitude of people who frequently feel the need to do something, anything, immediately.
They do not stop to think about what they are about to do; they do not select the best alternative,
and they do the first thing that comes to mind.□
□
Many people feel that accidents happen to others, but never to them. They know accidents can
happen, and they know that anyone can be affected. They never really feel or believe that they will
be personally involved. Pilots who think this way are more likely to take chances and increase risk.□
□
Pilots who are always trying to prove that they are better than anyone else are thinking, "I can do it
–I'll show them." Pilots with this type of attitude will try to prove themselves by taking risks in order
to impress others. While this pattern is thought to be a male characteristic, women are equally
susceptible.□
□
Pilots who think, "What's the use?" do not see themselves as being able to make a great deal of
difference in what happens to them. When things go well, the pilot is apt to think that it is good luck.
When things go badly, the pilot may feel that someone is out to get me, or attribute it to bad luck.
The pilot will leave the action to others, for better or worse. Sometimes, such pilots will even go
along with unreasonable requests just to be a "nice guy."□
2. Impulsivity:□
"Do it quickly."
3. Invulnerability:□
"It won't happen to me."
4. Macho:□
"I can do it."
□
5. Resignation:□
"What's the use?"
Figure 14-6. You should examine your decisions carefully to ensure that your choices have not been influenced by a hazardous
attitude.
Taking
chances is
foolish.□
□
Follow the
rules. They are
usually right.□
□
It could
happen to me.□
□
Not so fast.
Think first.□
I'm not
helpless. I can
make a
difference.
HAZARDOUS ATTITUDES ANTIDOTES
Macho—Brenda often brags to her
friends about her skills as a pilot and
wants to impress them with her abilities.
During her third solo flight she decides to
take a friend for a helicopter ride.□
□
Anti-authority—In the air she thinks "It's
great to be up here without an instructor
criticizing everything I do. His do-it-by-the-
book attitude takes all of the fun out of
flying."□
□
Invulnerability—As she nears her friends
farm, she remembers that it is about eight
miles from the closest airport. She thinks,
"I'll land in the pasture behind the barn at
Sarah's farm. It won't be dangerous at
all... the pasture is fenced and mowed
and no animals are in the way. It's no
more dangerous than landing at a
heliport."□
□
Impulsivity—After a short look, Brenda
initiates an approach to her friend's
pasture. Not realizing that she is landing
with a tail wind, she makes a hard landing
in the pasture and nearly hits the fence
with the tail rotor before she gets the
helicopter stopped.□
Resignation—A policeman pulls up to
investigate what he believes to be an
emergency landing. As Brenda is walking
from the helicopter, she is supprised that
anyone observed her landing. Her first
thought is "if it weren't for my bad luck, this
policeman wouldn't have come along and
this would have been a great afternoon." □
□
Figure 14-7. You must be able to identify hazardous attitudes
and apply the appropriate antidote when needed.
tified, but you must develop the skills to evaluate
whether you have the time to use a particular resource
and the impact that its use will have upon the safety of
flight. For example, the assistance of ATC may be very
useful if you are lost. However, in an emergency situa-
tion when action needs be taken quickly, time may not
be available to contact ATC immediately.
INTERNAL RESOURCES
Internal resources are found in the cockpit during
flight. Since some of the most valuable internal
resources are ingenuity, knowledge, and skill, you can
expand cockpit resources immensely by improving
these capabilities. This can be accomplished by fre-
quently reviewing flight information publications, such
as the CFRs and the AIM, as well as by pursuing addi-
tional training.
A thorough understanding of all the equipment and sys-
tems in the aircraft is necessary to fully utilize all
resources. For example, advanced navigation and
autopilot systems are valuable resources. However, if
pilots do not fully understand how to use this equip-
ment, or they rely on it so much that they become
complacent, it can become a detriment to safe flight.
Checklists are essential cockpit resources for verifying
that the aircraft instruments and systems are checked,
set, and operating properly, as well as ensuring that the
proper procedures are performed if there is a system
malfunction or in-flight emergency. In addition, the
FAA-approved rotorcraft flight manual, which is
required to be carried on board the aircraft, is essential
for accurate flight planning and for resolving in-flight
equipment malfunctions. Other valuable cockpit
resources include current aeronautical charts, and pub-
lications, such as the Airport/Facility Directory.
Passengers can also be a valuable resource. Passengers
can help watch for traffic and may be able to provide
information in an irregular situation, especially if they
are familiar with flying. A strange smell or sound may
alert a passenger to a potential problem. As pilot in
command, you should brief passengers before the
flight to make sure that they are comfortable voicing
any concerns.
EXTERNAL RESOURCES
Possibly the greatest external resources during flight
are air traffic controllers and flight service specialists.
ATC can help decrease pilot workload by providing
traffic advisories, radar vectors, and assistance in emer-
gency situations. Flight service stations can provide
updates on weather, answer questions about airport
conditions, and may offer direction-finding assistance.
The services provided by ATC can be invaluable in
enabling you to make informed in-flight decisions.
WORKLOAD MANAGEMENT
Effective workload management ensures that essential
operations are accomplished by planning, prioritizing,
and sequencing tasks to avoid work overload. As
experience is gained, you learn to recognize future
workload requirements and can prepare for high
workload periods during times of low workload.
Reviewing the appropriate chart and setting radio fre-
quencies well in advance of when they are needed
helps reduce workload as your flight nears the airport.
In addition, you should listen to ATIS, ASOS, or
AWOS, if available, and then monitor the tower fre-
quency or CTAF to get a good idea of what traffic
conditions to expect. Checklists should be performed
well in advance so there is time to focus on traffic and
ATC instructions. These procedures are especially
important prior to entering a high-density traffic area,
such as Class B airspace.
To manage workload, items should be prioritized. For
example, during any situation, and especially in an
emergency, you should remember the phrase “aviate,
STRESSORS
Physical Stress— Conditions associated with the environment, such as temperature and
humidity extremes, noise, vibration, and lack of oxygen.□
Physiological Stress—Physical conditions, such as fatigue, lack of physical fitness, sleep
loss, missed meals (leading to low blood sugar levels), and illness.□
Psychological Stress— Social or emotional factors, such as a death in the family, a divorce, a
sick child, or a demotion at work. This type of stress may also be related to mental workload,
such as analyzing a problem, navigating an aircraft, or making decisions.□
Figure 14-8. The three types of stressors that can affect a pilot’s performance.