track. These reference points should be kept in line
throughout the maneuver. [Figure 9-4]
Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering altitude
by applying cyclic toward the side in which the
movement is desired. As the movement begins, return
the cyclic toward the neutral position to keep the
groundspeed at a slow rate—no faster than a brisk
walk. Throughout the maneuver, maintain a constant
groundspeed and ground track with cyclic. Maintain
heading, which in this maneuver is perpendicular to
the ground track, with the antitorque pedals, and a
constant altitude with the collective. Use the throttle
to maintain the proper operating r.p.m.
To stop the sideward movement, apply cyclic pres-
sure in the direction opposite to that of movement
and hold it until the helicopter stops. As motion
stops, return the cyclic to the neutral position to
prevent movement in the opposite direction.
Applying sufficient opposite cyclic pressure to
level the helicopter may also stop sideward move-
ment. The helicopter then drifts to a stop.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Exaggerated movement of the cyclic, resulting in
overcontrolling and erratic movement over the
surface.
2. Failure to use proper antitorque pedal control,
resulting in excessive heading change.
3. Failure to maintain desired hovering altitude.
4. Failure to maintain proper r.p.m.
5. Failure to make sure the area is clear prior to
starting the maneuver.
HOVERING—REARWARD FLIGHT
Rearward hovering flight may be necessary to move the
helicopter to a specific area when the situation is such
that forward or sideward hovering flight cannot be used.
During the maneuver, maintain a constant groundspeed,
altitude, and heading. Due to the limited visibility
behind a helicopter, it is important that you make sure
that the area behind the helicopter is cleared before
beginning the maneuver. Use of ground personnel is rec-
ommended.
TECHNIQUE
Before starting rearward hovering flight, pick out two
reference points in front of, and in line with the heli-
copter just like you would if you were hovering for-
ward. [Figure 9-3] The movement of the helicopter
should be such that these points remain in line.
Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering altitude by
applying rearward pressure on the cyclic. After the
movement has begun, position the cyclic to maintain a
slow groundspeed (no faster than a brisk walk).
Throughout the maneuver, maintain constant ground-
speed and ground track with the cyclic, a constant
heading with the antitorque pedals, constant altitude
with the collective, and the proper r.p.m. with the throttle.
To stop the rearward movement, apply forward cyclic
and hold it until the helicopter stops. As the motion
stops, return the cyclic to the neutral position. Also, as
in the case of forward and sideward hovering flight,
opposite cyclic can be used to level the helicopter and
let it drift to a stop.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Exaggerated movement of the cyclic resulting in
overcontrolling and an uneven movement over
the surface.
2. Failure to use the antitorque pedals properly,
resulting in excessive heading change.
3. Failure to maintain desired hovering altitude.
4. Failure to maintain proper r.p.m.
5. Failure to make sure the area is clear prior to
starting the maneuver.
TAXIING
Taxiing refers to operations on, or near the surface of
taxiways or other prescribed routes. In helicopters,
there are three different types of taxiing.
Reference□
Points
Figure 9-4. The key to hovering sideward is establishing at
least two reference points that help you maintain a straight
track over the ground while keeping a constant heading.
HOVER TAXI
A "hover taxi" is used when operating below 25 feet
AGL. [Figure 9-5] Since hover taxi is just like forward,
sideward, or rearward hovering flight, the technique to
perform it will not be presented here.
AIR TAXI
An "air taxi" is preferred when movements require
greater distances within an airport or heliport bound-
ary. [Figure 9-6] In this case, you basically fly to your
new location; however, you are expected to remain
below 100 feet AGL, and to avoid overflight of other
aircraft, vehicles, and personnel.
TECHNIQUE
Before starting, determine the appropriate airspeed and
altitude combination to remain out of the cross-hatched
or shaded areas of the height-velocity diagram.
Additionally, be aware of crosswind conditions that
could lead to loss of tail rotor effectiveness. Pick out
two references directly in front of the helicopter for the
ground path desired. These reference points should be
kept in line throughout the maneuver.
Begin the maneuver from a normal hovering altitude
by applying forward pressure on the cyclic. As move-
ment begins, attain the desired airspeed with the cyclic.
Control the desired altitude with the collective, and
r.p.m. with the throttle. Throughout the maneuver,
maintain a desired groundspeed and ground track with
the cyclic, a constant heading with antitorque pedals,
the desired altitude with the collective, and proper
operating r.p.m. with the throttle.
To stop the forward movement, apply aft cyclic pressure
to reduce forward speed. Simultaneously lower the col-
lective to initiate a descent to hover altitude. As
forward motion stops, return the cyclic to the neutral posi-
tion to prevent rearward movement. When at the proper
hover altitude, increase the collective as necessary.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Erratic movement of the cyclic, resulting in
improper airspeed control and erratic movement
over the surface.
2. Failure to use antitorque pedals properly, result-
ing in excessive heading changes.
3. Failure to maintain desired altitude.
4. Failure to maintain proper r.p.m.
5. Overflying parked aircraft causing possible dam-
age from rotor downwash.
6. Flying in the cross-hatched or shaded area of the
height-velocity diagram.
7. Flying in a crosswind that could lead to loss of
tail rotor effectiveness.
SURFACE TAXI
A "surface taxi," for those helicopters with wheels, is
used whenever you wish to minimize the effects of
rotor downwash. [Figure 9-7]
TECHNIQUE
The helicopter should be in a stationary position on the
surface with the collective full down and the r.p.m. the
same as that used for a hover. This r.p.m. should be
maintained throughout the maneuver. Then, move the
cyclic slightly forward and apply gradual upward pres-
sure on the collective to move the helicopter forward
Hover Taxi□
(25 Feet or Less)
Poor Surface Conditions or Skid Type Helicopters
Figure 9-5. Hover taxi.
Air Taxi□
(100 Feet or Less)
Faster Travel
Figure 9-6. Air taxi.
Surface Taxi
Less Rotor Downwash
Figure 9-7. Surface taxi.
along the surface. Use the antitorque pedals to maintain
heading and the cyclic to maintain ground track. The
collective controls starting, stopping, and speed while
taxiing. The higher the collective pitch, the faster the
taxi speed; however, you should not taxi faster than a
brisk walk. If your helicopter is equipped with brakes,
use them to help you slow down. Do not use the cyclic
to control groundspeed.
During a crosswind taxi, hold the cyclic into the wind a
sufficient amount to eliminate any drifting movement.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Improper use of cyclic.
2. Failure to use antitorque pedals for heading
control.
3. Improper use of the controls during crosswind
operations.
4. Failure to maintain proper r.p.m.
NORMAL TAKEOFF FROM A HOVER
A normal takeoff from a hover is an orderly transition
to forward flight and is executed to increase altitude
safely and expeditiously. During the takeoff, fly a pro-
file that avoids the cross-hatched or shaded areas of the
height-velocity diagram.
TECHNIQUE
Refer to figure 9-8 (position 1). Bring the helicopter to
a hover and make a performance check, which
includes power, balance, and flight controls. The power
check should include an evaluation of the amount of
excess power available; that is, the difference between
the power being used to hover and the power available
at the existing altitude and temperature conditions. The
balance condition of the helicopter is indicated by the
position of the cyclic when maintaining a stationary
hover. Wind will necessitate some cyclic deflection,
but there should not be an extreme deviation from
neutral. Flight controls must move freely, and the hel-
icopter should respond normally. Then visually clear
the area all around.
Start the helicopter moving by smoothly and slowly eas-
ing the cyclic forward (position 2). As the helicopter
starts to move forward, increase the collective, as nec-
essary, to prevent the helicopter from sinking and adjust
the throttle to maintain r.p.m. The increase in power
requires an increase in the proper antitorque pedal to
maintain heading. Maintain a straight takeoff path
throughout the takeoff. As you accelerate through effec-
tive translational lift (position 3), the helicopter begins
to climb and the nose tends to rise due to increased lift.
At this point adjust the collective to obtain normal climb
power and apply enough forward cyclic to overcome
the tendency of the nose to rise. At position 4, hold an
attitude that allows a smooth acceleration toward climb-
ing airspeed and a commensurate gain in altitude so that
the takeoff profile does not take you through any of the
cross-hatched or shaded areas of the height-velocity
diagram. As airspeed increases (position 5), the stream-
lining of the fuselage reduces engine torque effect,
requiring a gradual reduction of antitorque pedal
pressure. As the helicopter continues to climb and accel-
erate to best rate of climb, apply aft cyclic pressure to
raise the nose smoothly to the normal climb attitude.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Failing to use sufficient collective pitch to pre-
vent loss of altitude prior to attaining transla-
tional lift.
2. Adding power too rapidly at the beginning of the
transition from hovering to forward flight without
forward cyclic compensation, causing the helicopter
to gain excessive altitude before acquiring airspeed.
Figure 9-8. The helicopter takes several positions during a normal takeoff from a hover. The numbered positions in the text refer
to the numbers in this illustration.
3. Assuming an extreme nose-down attitude near
the surface in the transition from hovering to
forward flight.
4. Failing to maintain a straight flight path over the
surface (ground track).
5. Failing to maintain proper airspeed during the
climb.
6. Failing to adjust the throttle to maintain proper
r.p.m.
NORMAL TAKEOFF FROM THE
SURFACE
Normal takeoff from the surface is used to move the
helicopter from a position on the surface into effective
translational lift and a normal climb using a minimum
amount of power. If the surface is dusty or covered with
loose snow, this technique provides the most favorable
visibility conditions and reduces the possibility of
debris being ingested by the engine.
TECHNIQUE
Place the helicopter in a stationary position on the sur-
face. Lower the collective to the full down position,
and reduce the r.p.m. below operating r.p.m. Visually
clear the area and select terrain features, or other
objects, to aid in maintaining the desired track during
takeoff and climb out. Increase the throttle to the
proper r.p.m. and raise the collective slowly until the
helicopter is light on the skids. Hesitate momentarily
and adjust the cyclic and antitorque pedals, as neces-
sary, to prevent any surface movement. Continue to
apply upward collective and, as the helicopter breaks
ground, use the cyclic, as necessary, to begin forward
movement as altitude is gained. Continue to acceler-
ate, and as effective translational lift is attained, the
helicopter begins to climb. Adjust attitude and power,
if necessary, to climb in the same manner as a takeoff
from a hover.
COMMOM ERRORS
1. Departing the surface in an attitude that is too
nose-low. This situation requires the use of exces-
sive power to initiate a climb.
2. Using excessive power combined with a level
attitude, which causes a vertical climb.
3. Too abrupt application of the collective when
departing the surface, causing r.p.m. and heading
control errors.
CROSSWIND CONSIDERATIONS
DURING TAKEOFFS
If the takeoff is made during crosswind conditions, the
helicopter is flown in a slip during the early stages of
the maneuver. [Figure 9-9] The cyclic is held into the
wind a sufficient amount to maintain the desired
ground track for the takeoff. The heading is maintained
with the use of the antitorque pedals. In other words,
the rotor is tilted into the wind so that the sideward
movement of the helicopter is just enough to counter-
act the crosswind effect. To prevent the nose from
turning in the direction of the rotor tilt, it is necessary
to increase the antitorque pedal pressure on the side
opposite the rotor tilt.
After approximately 50 feet of altitude is gained, make
a coordinated turn into the wind to maintain the desired
ground track. This is called crabbing into the wind. The
stronger the crosswind, the more you have to turn the
helicopter into the wind to maintain the desired ground
track. [Figure 9-10]
Wind□
Movement
Helicopter□
Side Movement
Figure 9-9. During a slip, the rotor disc is tilted into the wind.
Wind□
Movement
Helicopter Ground□
TrackHelicopter□
Heading
Figure 9-10. To compensate for wind drift at altitude, crab the
helicopter into the wind.
STRAIGHT-AND-LEVEL FLIGHT
Straight-and-level flight is flight in which a constant
altitude and heading are maintained. The attitude of the
helicopter determines the airspeed and is controlled by
the cyclic. Altitude is primarily controlled by use of the
collective.
TECHNIQUE
To maintain forward flight, the rotor tip-path plane must
be tilted forward to obtain the necessary horizontal
thrust component from the main rotor. This generally
results in a nose-low attitude. The lower the nose, the
greater the power required to maintain altitude, and the
higher the resulting airspeed. Conversely, the greater
the power used, the lower the nose must be to maintain
altitude. [Figure 9-11]
When in straight-and-level flight, any increase in the
collective, while holding airspeed constant, causes the
helicopter to climb. A decrease in the collective, while
holding airspeed constant, causes the helicopter to
descend. A change in the collective requires a coordi-
nated change of the throttle to maintain a constant
r.p.m. Additionally, the antitorque pedals need to be
adjusted to maintain heading and to keep the helicopter
in longitudinal trim.
To increase airspeed in straight-and-level flight, apply
forward pressure on the cyclic and raise the collective
as necessary to maintain altitude. To decrease airspeed,
apply rearward pressure on the cyclic and lower the
collective, as necessary, to maintain altitude.
Although the cyclic is sensitive, there is a slight delay
in control reaction, and it will be necessary to antici-
pate actual movement of the helicopter. When making
cyclic inputs to control the altitude or airspeed of a hel-
icopter, take care not to overcontrol. If the nose of the
helicopter rises above the level-flight attitude, apply
forward pressure to the cyclic to bring the nose down.
If this correction is held too long, the nose drops too
low. Since the helicopter continues to change attitude
momentarily after the controls reach neutral, return the
cyclic to neutral slightly before the desired attitude is
reached. This principal holds true for any cyclic input.
Since helicopters are inherently unstable, if a gust or
turbulence causes the nose to drop, the nose tends to
continue to drop instead of returning to a straight-and-
level attitude as would a fixed-wing aircraft.
Therefore, you must remain alert and FLY the helicop-
ter at all times.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Failure to properly trim the helicopter, tending to
hold antitorque pedal pressure and opposite
cyclic. This is commonly called cross-controlling.
2. Failure to maintain desired airspeed.
3. Failure to hold proper control position to main-
tain desired ground track.
TURNS
A turn is a maneuver used to change the heading of the
helicopter. The aerodynamics of a turn were previously
discussed in Chapter 3—Aerodynamics of Flight.
TECHNIQUE
Before beginning any turn, the area in the direction of
the turn must be cleared not only at the helicopter’s alti-
tude, but also above and below. To enter a turn from
straight-and-level flight, apply sideward pressure on
the cyclic in the direction the turn is to be made. This is
the only control movement needed to start the turn. Do
not use the pedals to assist the turn. Use the pedals only
to compensate for torque to keep the helicopter in lon-
gitudinal trim. [Figure 9-12]
How fast the helicopter banks depends on how much
lateral cyclic pressure you apply. How far the helicop-
ter banks (the steepness of the bank) depends on how
long you displace the cyclic. After establishing the
proper bank angle, return the cyclic toward the neutral
position. Increase the collective and throttle to main-
Tip-Path Plane
Figure 9-11. You can maintain a straight-and-level attitude by
keeping the tip-path plane parallel to and a constant distance
above or below the natural horizon. For any given airspeed,
this distance remains the same as long as you sit in the same
position in the same type of aircraft.
HCL
Inertia
Figure 9-12. During a level, coordinated turn, the rate of turn
is commensurate with the angle of bank used, and inertia and
horizontal component of lift (HCL) are equal.
tain altitude and r.p.m. As the torque increases, increase
the proper antitorque pedal pressure to maintain longi-
tudinal trim. Depending on the degree of bank, addi-
tional forward cyclic pressure may be required to
maintain airspeed.
Rolling out of the turn to straight-and-level flight is the
same as the entry into the turn except that pressure on
the cyclic is applied in the opposite direction. Since the
helicopter continues to turn as long as there is any bank,
start the rollout before reaching the desired heading.
The discussion on level turns is equally applicable to
making turns while climbing or descending. The only
difference being that the helicopter is in a climbing or
descending attitude rather than that of level flight. If a
simultaneous entry is desired, merely combine the
techniques of both maneuvers—climb or descent
entry and turn entry. When recovering from a climbing
or descending turn, the desired heading and altitude are
rarely reached at the same time. If the heading is
reached first, stop the turn and maintain the climb or
descent until reaching the desired altitude. On the
other hand, if the altitude is reached first, establish the
level flight attitude and continue the turn to the
desired heading.
SLIPS
A slip occurs when the helicopter slides sideways
toward the center of the turn. [Figure 9-13] It is caused
by an insufficient amount of antitorque pedal in the
direction of the turn, or too much in the direction oppo-
site the turn, in relation to the amount of power used. In
other words, if you hold improper antitorque pedal pres-
sure, which keeps the nose from following the turn, the
helicopter slips sideways toward the center of the turn.
SKIDS
A skid occurs when the helicopter slides sideways
away from the center of the turn. [Figure 9-14] It is
caused by too much antitorque pedal pressure in the
direction of the turn, or by too little in the direction
opposite the turn in relation to the amount of power
used. If the helicopter is forced to turn faster with
increased pedal pressure instead of by increasing the
degree of the bank, it skids sideways away from the
center of the turn instead of flying in its normal curved
pattern.
In summary, a skid occurs when the rate of turn is too
fast for the amount of bank being used, and a slip occurs
when the rate of turn is too slow for the amount of bank
being used.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Using antitorque pedal pressures for turns. This is
usually not necessary for small helicopters.
2. Slipping or skidding in the turn.
NORMAL CLIMB
The entry into a climb from a hover has already been
discussed under “Normal Takeoff from a Hover;” there-
fore, this discussion is limited to a climb entry from
cruising flight.
TECHNIQUE
To enter a climb from cruising flight, apply aft cyclic to
obtain the approximate climb attitude. Simultaneously
increase the collective and throttle to obtain climb
power and maintain r.p.m. In a counterclockwise rotor
system, increase the left antitorque pedal pressure to
compensate for the increased torque. As the airspeed
approaches normal climb airspeed, adjust the cyclic to
hold this airspeed. Throughout the maneuver, maintain
climb attitude, heading, and airspeed with the cyclic;
climb power and r.p.m. with the collective and throttle;
and longitudinal trim with the antitorque pedals.
To level off from a climb, start adjusting the attitude to the
level flight attitude a few feet prior to reaching the desired
altitude. The amount of lead depends on the rate of climb
at the time of level-off (the higher the rate of climb, the
Slip
InertiaHCL
Figure 9-13. During a slip, the rate of turn is too slow for the
angle of bank used, and the horizontal component of lift
(HCL) exceeds inertia.
Skid
HCL Inertia
Figure 9-14. During a skid, the rate of turn is too fast for the
angle of bank used, and inertia exceeds the horizontal com-
ponent of lift (HCL).
more the lead). Generally, the lead is 10 percent of the
climb rate. For example, if your climb rate is 500 feet per
minute, you should lead the level-off by 50 feet.
To begin the level-off, apply forward cyclic to adjust
and maintain a level flight attitude, which is slightly
nose low. You should maintain climb power until the
airspeed approaches the desired cruising airspeed, then
lower the collective to obtain cruising power and adjust
the throttle to obtain and maintain cruising r.p.m.
Throughout the level-off, maintain longitudinal trim
and heading with the antitorque pedals.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Failure to maintain proper power and airspeed.
2. Holding too much or too little antitorque pedal.
3. In the level-off, decreasing power before lower-
ing the nose to cruising attitude.
NORMAL DESCENT
A normal descent is a maneuver in which the helicop-
ter loses altitude at a controlled rate in a controlled
attitude.
TECHNIQUE
To establish a normal descent from straight-and-level
flight at cruising airspeed, lower the collective to obtain
proper power, adjust the throttle to maintain r.p.m., and
increase right antitorque pedal pressure to maintain
heading in a counterclockwise rotor system, or left
pedal pressure in a clockwise system. If cruising
airspeed is the same as, or slightly above descending air-
speed, simultaneously apply the necessary cyclic
pressure to obtain the approximate descending attitude.
If cruising speed is well above descending airspeed, you
can maintain a level flight attitude until the airspeed
approaches the descending airspeed, then lower the
nose to the descending attitude. Throughout the maneu-
ver, maintain descending attitude and airspeed with the
cyclic; descending power and r.p.m. with the collective
and throttle; and heading with the antitorque pedals.
To level off from the descent, lead the desired altitude by
approximately 10 percent of the rate of descent. For exam-
ple, a 500 feet per minute rate of descent would require a
50 foot lead. At this point, increase the collective to obtain
cruising power, adjust the throttle to maintain r.p.m., and
increase left antitorque pedal pressure to maintain heading
(right pedal pressure in a clockwise rotor system). Adjust
the cyclic to obtain cruising airspeed and a level flight atti-
tude as the desired altitude is reached.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Failure to maintain constant angle of decent dur-
ing training.
2. Failure to lead the level-off sufficiently, which
results in recovery below the desired altitude.
3. Failure to adjust antitorque pedal pressures for
changes in power.
GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS
Ground reference maneuvers are training exercises
flown to help you develop a division of attention
between the flight path and ground references, while
controlling the helicopter and watching for other air-
craft in the vicinity. Prior to each maneuver, a clearing
turn should be accomplished to ensure the practice area
is free of conflicting traffic.
RECTANGULAR COURSE
The rectangular course is a training maneuver in which
the ground track of the helicopter is equidistant from
all sides of a selected rectangular area on the ground.
While performing the maneuver, the altitude and air-
speed should be held constant. The rectangular course
helps you to develop a recognition of a drift toward or
away from a line parallel to the intended ground track.
This is helpful in recognizing drift toward or from an
airport runway during the various legs of the airport
traffic pattern.
For this maneuver, pick a square or rectangular field,
or an area bounded on four sides by section lines or
roads, where the sides are approximately a mile in
length. The area selected should be well away from
other air traffic. Fly the maneuver approximately 600
to 1,000 feet above the ground, which is the altitude
usually required for an airport traffic pattern. You
should fly the helicopter parallel to and at a uniform
distance, about one-fourth to one-half mile, from the
field boundaries, not above the boundaries. For best
results, position your flight path outside the field
boundaries just far enough away that they may be
easily observed from either pilot seat by looking out
the side of the helicopter. If an attempt is made to fly
directly above the edges of the field, you will have
no usable reference points to start and complete the
turns. In addition, the closer the track of the helicop-
ter is to the field boundaries, the steeper the bank
necessary at the turning points. Also, you should be
able to see the edges of the selected field while seated
in a normal position and looking out the side of the
helicopter during either a left-hand or right-hand
course. The distance of the ground track from the
edges of the field should be the same regardless of
whether the course is flown to the left or right. All
turns should be started when your helicopter is abeam
the corners of the field boundaries. The bank nor-
mally should not exceed 30°.
Although the rectangular course may be entered from
any direction, this discussion assumes entry on a