downwind heading. [Figure 9-15] As you approach the
field boundary on the downwind leg, you should begin
planning for your turn to the crosswind leg. Since you
have a tailwind on the downwind leg, the helicopter's
groundspeed is increased (position 1). During the turn
onto the crosswind leg, which is the equivalent of the
base leg in a traffic pattern, the wind causes the heli-
copter to drift away from the field. To counteract this
effect, the roll-in should be made at a fairly fast rate
with a relatively steep bank (position 2).
As the turn progresses, the tailwind component
decreases, which decreases the groundspeed.
Consequently, the bank angle and rate of turn must be
reduced gradually to ensure that upon completion of
the turn, the crosswind ground track continues to be the
same distance from the edge of the field. Upon comple-
tion of the turn, the helicopter should be level and
aligned with the downwind corner of the field.
However, since the crosswind is now pushing you
away from the field, you must establish the proper drift
correction by flying slightly into the wind. Therefore,
the turn to crosswind should be greater than a 90°
change in heading (position 3). If the turn has been
made properly, the field boundary again appears to be
one-fourth to one-half mile away. While on the cross-
wind leg, the wind correction should be adjusted, as
necessary, to maintain a uniform distance from the field
boundary (position 4).
As the next field boundary is being approached (posi-
tion 5), plan the turn onto the upwind leg. Since a wind
correction angle is being held into the wind and toward
the field while on the crosswind leg, this next turn
requires a turn of less than 90°. Since the crosswind
becomes a headwind, causing the groundspeed to
decrease during this turn, the bank initially must be
medium and progressively decreased as the turn pro-
ceeds. To complete the turn, time the rollout so that the
helicopter becomes level at a point aligned with the
corner of the field just as the longitudinal axis of the
helicopter again becomes parallel to the field boundary
(position 6). The distance from the field boundary
should be the same as on the other sides of the field.
On the upwind leg, the wind is a headwind, which
results in an decreased groundspeed (position 7).
Consequently, enter the turn onto the next leg with a
fairly slow rate of roll-in, and a relatively shallow bank
(position 8). As the turn progresses, gradually increase
the bank angle because the headwind component is
diminishing, resulting in an increasing groundspeed.
During and after the turn onto this leg, the wind tends
to drift the helicopter toward the field boundary. To
WIND
No Crab
Start Turn□
At Boundary
Complete Turn□
At Boundary
Turn less Than□
90ϒ—Roll Out□
With Crab Established
Crab Into□
Wind
Start Turn□
At Boundary
Turn More□
Than 90ϒ
Enter□
Pattern
Complete Turn□
At Boundary
No CrabStart Turn□
At Boundary
Turn More Than□
90ϒ—Roll Out□
With Crab Established
Complete Turn□
At Boundary
Crab Into□
Wind
Start Turn□
At Boundary
Turn Less□
Than 90ϒ
Complete Turn□
At Boundary
TrackW
ithNoW
indCorrection
TrackWithNoW
ind
Correction
Figure 9-15. Rectangular course. The numbered positions in the text refer to the numbers in this illustration.
compensate for the drift, the amount of turn must be
less than 90° (position 9).
Again, the rollout from this turn must be such that as
the helicopter becomes level, the nose of the helicopter
is turned slightly away the field and into the wind to
correct for drift. The helicopter should again be the
same distance from the field boundary and at the same
altitude, as on other legs. Continue the crosswind leg
until the downwind leg boundary is approached (posi-
tion 10). Once more you should anticipate drift and
turning radius. Since drift correction was held on the
crosswind leg, it is necessary to turn greater than 90° to
align the helicopter parallel to the downwind leg
boundary. Start this turn with a medium bank angle,
gradually increasing it to a steeper bank as the turn pro-
gresses. Time the rollout to assure paralleling the
boundary of the field as the helicopter becomes level
(position 11).
If you have a direct headwind or tailwind on the
upwind and downwind leg, drift should not be encoun-
tered. However, it may be difficult to find a situation
where the wind is blowing exactly parallel to the field
boundaries. This makes it necessary to use a slight
wind correction angle on all the legs. It is important to
anticipate the turns to compensate for groundspeed,
drift, and turning radius. When the wind is behind the
helicopter, the turn is faster and steeper; when it is
ahead of the helicopter, the turn is slower and
shallower. These same techniques apply while flying in
an airport traffic pattern.
S-TURNS
Another training maneuver you might use is the S-turn,
which helps you correct for wind drift in turns. This
maneuver requires turns to the left and right. The refer-
ence line used, whether a road, railroad, or fence, should
be straight for a considerable distance and should
extend as nearly perpendicular to the wind as possible.
The object of S-turns is to fly a pattern of two half cir-
cles of equal size on opposite sides of the reference line.
[Figure 9-16] The maneuver should be performed at a
constant altitude between 600 and 1,000 feet above the
terrain. S-turns may be started at any point; however,
during early training it may be beneficial to start on a
downwind heading. Entering downwind permits the
immediate selection of the steepest bank that is desired
throughout the maneuver. The discussion that follows is
based on choosing a reference line that is perpendicular
to the wind and starting the maneuver on a downwind
heading.
As the helicopter crosses the reference line, immedi-
ately establish a bank. This initial bank is the steepest
used throughout the maneuver since the helicopter is
headed directly downwind and the groundspeed is at its
highest. Gradually reduce the bank, as necessary, to
describe a ground track of a half circle. Time the turn
so that as the rollout is completed, the helicopter is
crossing the reference line perpendicular to it and head-
ing directly upwind. Immediately enter a bank in the
opposite direction to begin the second half of the “S.”
Since the helicopter is now on an upwind heading, this
bank (and the one just completed before crossing the
reference line) is the shallowest in the maneuver.
Gradually increase the bank, as necessary, to describe a
ground track that is a half circle identical in size to the
one previously completed on the other side of the refer-
ence line. The steepest bank in this turn should be
attained just prior to rollout when the helicopter is
approaching the reference line nearest the downwind
heading. Time the turn so that as the rollout is com-
plete, the helicopter is perpendicular to the reference
line and is again heading directly downwind.
In summary, the angle of bank required at any given
point in the maneuver is dependent on the ground-
speed. The faster the groundspeed, the steeper the
bank; the slower the groundspeed, the shallower
the bank. To express it another way, the more nearly
the helicopter is to a downwind heading, the steeper the
bank; the more nearly it is to an upwind heading,
the shallower the bank. In addition to varying the angle
of bank to correct for drift in order to maintain the
proper radius of turn, the helicopter must also be flown
with a drift correction angle (crab) in relation to its
ground track; except of course, when it is on direct
upwind or downwind headings or there is no wind. One
would normally think of the fore and aft axis of the heli-
copter as being tangent to the ground track pattern at
each point. However, this is not the case. During the turn
on the upwind side of the reference line (side from
which the wind is blowing), crab the nose of the heli-
copter toward the outside of the circle. During the turn
on the downwind side of the reference line (side of the
reference line opposite to the direction from which the
wind is blowing), crab the nose of the helicopter toward
the inside of the circle. In either case, it is obvious that
Points of□
Shallowest Bank
Points of□
Steepest Bank
WIND
Figure 9-16. S-turns across a road.
the helicopter is being crabbed into the wind just as it is
when trying to maintain a straight ground track. The
amount of crab depends upon the wind velocity and
how nearly the helicopter is to a crosswind position.
The stronger the wind, the greater the crab angle at any
given position for a turn of a given radius. The more
nearly the helicopter is to a crosswind position, the
greater the crab angle. The maximum crab angle should
be at the point of each half circle farthest from the
reference line.
A standard radius for S-turns cannot be specified, since
the radius depends on the airspeed of the helicopter,
the velocity of the wind, and the initial bank chosen
for entry.
TURNS AROUND A POINT
This training maneuver requires you to fly constant
radius turns around a preselected point on the ground
using a bank of approximately 30°, while maintaining
a constant altitude. [Figure 9-17] Your objective, as in
other ground reference maneuvers, is to develop the
ability to subconsciously control the helicopter while
dividing attention between the flight path and ground
references, while still watching for other air traffic in
the vicinity.
The factors and principles of drift correction that are
involved in S-turns are also applicable in this maneu-
ver. As in other ground track maneuvers, a constant
radius around a point will, if any wind exists, require
a constantly changing angle of bank and angles of
wind correction. The closer the helicopter is to a
direct downwind heading where the groundspeed is
greatest, the steeper the bank, and the faster the rate
of turn required to establish the proper wind correc-
tion angle. The more nearly it is to a direct upwind
heading where the groundspeed is least, the shallower
the bank, and the slower the rate of turn required to
establish the proper wind correction angle. It follows,
then, that throughout the maneuver, the bank and rate
of turn must be gradually varied in proportion to the
groundspeed.
The point selected for turns around a point should be
prominent and easily distinguishable, yet small enough
to present a precise reference. Isolated trees, crossroads,
or other similar small landmarks are usually suitable.
The point should be in an area away from communities,
livestock, or groups of people on the ground to prevent
possible annoyance or hazard to others. Since the
maneuver is performed between 600 and 1,000 feet
AGL, the area selected should also afford an opportu-
nity for a safe emergency autorotation in the event it
becomes necessary.
To enter turns around a point, fly the helicopter on a
downwind heading to one side of the selected point
at a distance equal to the desired radius of turn. When
any significant wind exists, it is necessary to roll into
the initial bank at a rapid rate so that the steepest
bank is attained abeam the point when the helicopter
is headed directly downwind. By entering the maneu-
ver while heading directly downwind, the steepest
bank can be attained immediately. Thus, if a bank of
30° is desired, the initial bank is 30° if the helicopter
is at the correct distance from the point. Thereafter,
the bank is gradually shallowed until the point is
reached where the helicopter is headed directly
upwind. At this point, the bank is gradually steepened
until the steepest bank is again attained when head-
ing downwind at the initial point of entry.
Just as S-turns require that the helicopter be turned
into the wind in addition to varying the bank, so do
turns around a point. During the downwind half of the
circle, the helicopter’s nose must be progressively
turned toward the inside of the circle; during the
upwind half, the nose must be progressively turned
toward the outside. The downwind half of the turn
around the point may be compared to the downwind
side of the S-turn, while the upwind half of the turn
around a point may be compared to the upwind side
of the S-turn.
As you become experienced in performing turns
around a point and have a good understanding of the
effects of wind drift and varying of the bank angle
and wind correction angle as required, entry into the
maneuver may be from any point. When entering
this maneuver at any point, the radius of the turn
UPPERHALF OF CIRCLE
DOWNWIND HALF OF CIRCLE
Shallowest□
Bank
Steeper□
Bank
Steepest□
Bank
Shallower□
Bank
WIND
Figure 9-17. Turns around a point.
must be carefully selected, taking into account the
wind velocity and groundspeed so that an excessive
bank is not required later on to maintain the proper
ground track.
COMMON ERRORS DURING GROUND
REFERENCE MANEUVERS
1. Faulty entry technique.
2. Poor planning, orientation, or division of
attention.
3. Uncoordinated flight control application.
4. Improper correction for wind drift.
5. An unsymmetrical ground track during S-Turns
Across a Road.
6. Failure to maintain selected altitude or airspeed.
7. Selection of a ground reference where there is no
suitable emergency landing area within gliding
distance.
TRAFFIC PATTERNS
A traffic pattern is useful to control the flow of traffic, par-
ticularly at airports without operating control towers. It
affords a measure of safety, separation, protection, and
administrative control over arriving, departing, and
circling aircraft. Due to specialized operating character-
istics, airplanes and helicopters do not mix well in the
same traffic environment. At multiple-use airports,
you routinely must avoid the flow of fixed-wing traf-
fic. To do this, you need to be familiar with the
patterns typically flown by airplanes. In addition, you
should learn how to fly these patterns in case air traf-
fic control (ATC) requests that you fly a fixed-wing
traffic pattern.
A normal traffic pattern is rectangular, has five named
legs, and a designated altitude, usually 600 to 1,000
feet AGL. A pattern in which all turns are to the left is
called a standard pattern. [Figure 9-18] The takeoff leg
(item 1) normally consists of the aircraft’s flight path
after takeoff. This leg is also called the upwind leg. You
should turn to the crosswind leg (item 2), after passing
the departure end of the runway when you are at a safe
altitude. Fly the downwind leg (item 3) parallel to the
runway at the designated traffic pattern altitude and
distance from the runway. Begin the base leg (item 4)
at a point selected according to other traffic and wind
conditions. If the wind is very strong, begin the turn
sooner than normal. If the wind is light, delay the turn
to base. The final approach (item 5) is the path the air-
craft flies immediately prior to touchdown.
You may find variations at different localities and at
airports with operating control towers. For example, a
right-hand pattern may be designated to expedite the
flow of traffic when obstacles or highly populated areas
make the use of a left-hand pattern undesirable.
When approaching an airport with an operating control
tower in a helicopter, it is possible to expedite traffic by
stating your intentions, for example:
1. (Call sign of helicopter) Robinson 8340J.
2. (Position) 10 miles west.
3. (Request) for landing and hover to...
In order to avoid the flow of fixed-wing traffic, the
tower will often clear you direct to an approach point
or to a particular runway intersection nearest your
destination point. At uncontrolled airports, if at all
possible, you should adhere to standard practices
and patterns.
Traffic pattern entry procedures at airports with an
operating control tower are specified by the controller.
At uncontrolled airports, traffic pattern altitudes and
entry procedures may vary according to established
local procedures. The general procedure is for you to
enter the pattern at a 45° angle to the downwind leg
abeam the midpoint of the runway. For information
concerning traffic pattern and landing direction, you
should utilize airport advisory service or UNICOM,
when available.
The standard departure procedure when using the
fixed-wing traffic pattern is usually straight-out, down-
wind, or a right-hand departure. When a control tower
is in operation, you can request the type of departure
you desire. In most cases, helicopter departures are
made into the wind unless obstacles or traffic dictate
otherwise. At airports without an operating control
tower, you must comply with the departure procedures
established for that airport.
Downwind Leg
Base Leg
Final Approach□
Leg
Takeoff Leg□
(Upwind)
CrosswindLeg
Figure 9-18. A standard traffic pattern has turns to left and
five designated legs.
APPROACHES
An approach is the transition from traffic pattern alti-
tude to either a hover or to the surface. The approach
should terminate at the hover altitude with the rate of
descent and groundspeed reaching zero at the same
time. Approaches are categorized according to the angle
of descent as normal, steep, or shallow. In this chapter
we will concentrate on the normal approach. Steep and
shallow approaches are discussed in the next chapter.
You should use the type of approach best suited to the
existing conditions. These conditions may include
obstacles, size and surface of the landing area, density
altitude, wind direction and speed, and weight.
Regardless of the type of approach, it should always
be made to a specific, predetermined landing spot.
NORMAL APPROACH TO A HOVER
A normal approach uses a descent profile of between
8° and 12° starting at approximately 300 feet AGL.
TECHNIQUE
On final approach, at the recommended approach
airspeed and at approximately 300 feet AGL, align the
helicopter with the point of intended touchdown.
[Figure 9-19] After intercepting an approach angle of 8°
to 12°, begin the approach by lowering the collective
sufficiently to get the helicopter decelerating and
descending down the approach angle. With the decrease
in the collective, the nose tends to pitch down, requiring
aft cyclic to maintain the recommended approach air-
speed attitude. Adjust antitorque pedals, as necessary, to
maintain longitudinal trim. You can determine the proper
approach angle by relating the point of intended
touchdown to a point on the helicopter windshield. The
collective controls the angle of approach. If the touch-
down point seems to be moving up on the windshield, the
angle is becoming shallower, necessitating a slight
increase in collective. If the touchdown point moves
down on the windshield, the approach angle is becoming
steeper, requiring a slight decrease in collective. Use the
cyclic to control the rate of closure or how fast your are
moving toward the touchdown point. Maintain entry
airspeed until the apparent groundspeed and rate of
closure appear to be increasing. At this point, slowly
begin decelerating with slight aft cyclic, and smoothly
lower the collective to maintain approach angle. Use the
cyclic to maintain a rate of closure equivalent to a
brisk walk.
At approximately 25 to 40 feet AGL, depending on wind,
the helicopter begins to lose effective translational lift. To
compensate for loss of effective translational lift, you
must increase the collective to maintain the approach
angle, while maintaining the proper r.p.m. The increase
of collective pitch tends to make the nose rise, requiring
forward cyclic to maintain the proper rate of closure.
As the helicopter approaches the recommended hover
altitude, you need to increase the collective sufficiently
to maintain the hover. At the same time you need to
apply aft cyclic to stop any forward movement, while
controlling the heading with antitorque pedals.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Failing to maintain proper r.p.m. during the entire
approach.
2. Improper use of the collective in controlling the
angle of descent.
3. Failing to make antitorque pedal corrections to
compensate for collective changes during the
approach.
4. Failing to simultaneously arrive at hovering alti-
tude and attitude with zero groundspeed.
5. Low r.p.m. in transition to the hover at the end of
the approach.
6. Using too much aft cyclic close to the surface,
which may result in tail rotor strikes.
HH
Imaginary□
Centerline
Figure 9-19. Plan the turn to final so the helicopter rolls out
on an imaginary extension of the centerline for the final
approach path. This path should neither angle to the land-
ing area, as shown by the helicopter on the left, nor require
an S-turn, as shown by the helicopter on the right.
NORMAL APPROACH TO THE SURFACE
A normal approach to the surface or a no-hover landing is
used if loose snow or dusty surface conditions exist.
These situations could cause severely restricted visibility,
or the engine could possibly ingest debris when the heli-
copter comes to a hover. The approach is the same as the
normal approach to a hover; however, instead of termi-
nating at a hover, continue the approach to touchdown.
Touchdown should occur with the skids level, zero
groundspeed, and a rate of descent approaching zero.
TECHNIQUE:
As the helicopter nears the surface, increase the collec-
tive, as necessary, to cushion the landing on the sur-
face, terminate in a skids-level attitude with no forward
movement.
COMMON ERRORS
1. Terminating at a hover, then making a vertical
landing.
2. Touching down with forward movement.
3. Approaching too slow, requiring the use of exces-
sive power during the termination.
4. Approaching too fast, causing a hard landing.
CROSSWIND DURING APPROACHES
During a crosswind approach, you should crab into the
wind. At approximately 50 feet of altitude, use a slip to
align the fuselage with the ground track. The rotor is
tilted into the wind with cyclic pressure so that the
sideward movement of the helicopter and wind drift
counteract each other. Maintain the heading and ground
track with the antitorque pedals. This technique should
be used on any type of crosswind approach, whether it is
a shallow, normal, or steep approach.
GO-AROUND
A go-around is a procedure for remaining airborne after
an intended landing is discontinued. A go-around may
be necessary when:
• Instructed by the control tower.
• Traffic conflict occurs.
A good rule of thumb to use during an approach is to
make a go-around if the helicopter is in a position from
which it is not safe to continue the approach. Anytime
you feel an approach is uncomfortable, incorrect, or
potentially dangerous, abandon the approach. The deci-
sion to make a go-around should be positive and initiated
before a critical situation develops. When the decision is
made, carry it out without hesitation. In most cases, when
you initiate the go-around, power is at a low setting.
Therefore, your first response is to increase collective to
takeoff power. This movement is coordinated with the
throttle to maintain r.p.m., and the proper antitorque pedal
to control heading. Then, establish a climb attitude and
maintain climb speed to go around for another approach.
AFTER LANDING AND SECURING
When the flight is terminated, park the helicopter
where it will not interfere with other aircraft and not
be a hazard to people during shutdown. Rotor down-
wash can cause damage to other aircraft in close
proximity, and spectators may not realize the danger
or see the rotors turning. Passengers should remain in
the helicopter with their seats belts secured until the
rotors have stopped turning. During the shutdown
and postflight inspection, follow the manufacturer’s
checklist. Any discrepancies found should be noted
and, if necessary, reported to maintenance personnel.
NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES
The FAA, in conjunction with airport operators and
community leaders, is now using noise abatement
procedures to reduce the level of noise generated by
aircraft departing over neighborhoods that are near
airports. The airport authority may simply request that
you use a designated runway, wind permitting. You
also may be asked to restrict some of your operations,
such as practicing landings, during certain time peri-
ods. There are three ways to determine the noise abate-
ment procedure at an airport. First, if there is a control
tower on the field, they will assign the preferred noise
abatement runway or takeoff direction to you. Second,
you can check the Airport/Facility Directory for infor-
mation on local procedures. Third, there may be infor-
mation for you to read in the pilot’s lounge, or even
signs posted next to a runway that will advise you on
local procedures.