Figure 5-66. Taxi on the airport yellow taxi line, but stop at the
“hold short line” to get clearance before taxiing across or onto an
active airport runway.
the clearance. The WSC aircraft does have the advantage of
the wing tip capability of being raised and lowered to clear
objects.
It is diffi cult to set any rule for a single, safe taxiing speed.
What is reasonable and prudent under some conditions may
be hazardous under others. The primary requirements for safe
taxiing are positive control, the ability to recognize potential
hazards in time to avoid them, and the ability to stop or turn
where and when desired without undue reliance on the brakes.
Pilots should proceed at a cautious speed on congested or
busy ramps. Normally, the speed should be at the rate at
which movement of the aircraft is dependent on the throttle.
That is, the speed should be low enough that when the throttle
is closed, the aircraft can be stopped promptly.
A GPS provides this speed since the airspeed indicator is not
effective at these lower speeds. A rule of thumb is 5 mph, brisk
walking speed, or 10 mph for long unobstructed areas. When
taxiing, it is best to slow down before attempting a turn.
WSC aircraft taxi with the wing typically held in a neutral
position, but stronger winds may require positioning of the
wing so it cannot be lifted. Position controls properly for
wind conditions:
• Strong tailwind—pitch control normal or slight nose
up with wings level.
• Strong headwind—pitch control nose down with
wings level.
• Strong quartering tail wind—nose normal with upwind
wing slightly down so wind cannot catch it, but not to
low to cause excess stress on carriage mast.
• Strong quartering head wind—nose down with upwind
wing slightly down so wind cannot catch it, but not
low enough to cause excess stress on carriage mast.
Checklist for Taxi
Plan taxi path to runway to avoid paths that would put the
aircraft behind any propeller or jet blast. Observe other
aircraft closely which could start up and taxi in front, if
practical.
• Turn on strobe light (if applicable).
• Release brake.
• When fi rst rolling, immediately check brakes, steering,
and shut down if either is not functioning properly.
• Observe proper right of way while taxiing.
- Taxiing aircraft yield to landing aircraft, so
landing craft have right of way over taxiing
aircraft.
- Two aircraft approaching head on will turn right
(similar to what is done in a car).
- Two aircraft traveling in same direction, the
forward aircraft has right of way because its pilot
can not normally see the aircraft in back.
- With two airplanes converging, the pilot who sees
an aircraft on the right must avoid that aircraft.
The aircraft on the right has the right of way.
• Runway incursions—observe all taxiway and runway
markings.
Runway incursions are a signifi cant risk and must be avoided.
This is a most important concept. Taxi slowly and observe
the basic airport markings/signs. Clearance to proceed must
be obtained prior to taxiing across any runway or entering a
runway to takeoff. There could be large aircraft, which may
not be able to respond to WSC aircraft quick movements. An
important runway marker is the “Hold Short Line.” Always
stop before reaching this line and get clearance before
crossing it. [Figure 5-66]
• At a towered airport, this is clearance from the tower.
Always read back tower instructions clearance when
received from tower before proceeding.
• At a nontowered airport, the clearance procedure is
to listen to and monitor all air traffi c on the airport
radio frequency. Observe all air traffi c taxiing and in
the pattern. After listening on the radio and observing
all possible traffi c, announce position and intentions
before crossing runway or entering runway. If crossing
runway, announce once you have taxied across that
you are clear of runway.
Figure 5-67. Positioned in the aircraft run up area before takeoff,
the WSC is ready to perform the pretakeoff checklist.
Before Takeoff Check
The before takeoff check is the systematic procedure for
making a check of the engine, controls, systems, instruments,
and avionics prior to fl ight. Normally, it is performed after
taxiing to a position near the takeoff end of the runway.
Taxiing to that position usually allows sufficient time
for the engine to warm up to at least minimum operating
temperatures. This ensures adequate lubrication and internal
engine clearances before being operated at high power
settings. Many engines require that the oil temperature or
engine temperature reach a minimum value, as stated in the
AFM/POH, before high power is applied.
Some WSC aircraft are ram air cooled, where the cooling
air must be rammed into the cooling radiator during fl ight.
On the ground, however, little or no air is forced through
the radiator. Prolonged ground operations may cause engine
overheating. Some designs place the cooling radiators near
the propeller so the propeller produces reasonable airfl ow
to cool the engine.
Air cooled two-stroke engine aircraft may have an integral
engine driven cooling fan and can idle indefi nitely without
overheating. Monitoring engine temperature to be within
limits is important for aircraft operations on the ground.
After taxiing to the runway entrance runup area and before
beginning the pretakeoff check, the aircraft should be
positioned clear of other aircraft. When you taxi out to the
run up area, position your self where other aircraft can easily
taxi to a suitable run up area. There should not be anything
behind the aircraft that might be damaged by the prop
blast. To minimize overheating during engine run-up, it is
recommended that the aircraft be headed as nearly as possible
into the wind. After an aircraft is properly positioned for the
run-up, the nose wheel should be pointed straight.
During the engine run-up, the surface under the WSC aircraft
should be fi rm (a smooth, paved, or turf surface, if possible)
and free of debris. Otherwise, the propeller may pick up
pebbles, dirt, or other loose objects and hurl them backward
or into the sail. [Figure 5-67]
While performing the engine run-up, the pilot must divide
attention inside to look at the instruments and outside the
aircraft to look for other traffi c. If the parking brake slips,
or if application of the brakes is inadequate for the amount
of power applied, the aircraft could move forward unnoticed
if attention is fi xed only inside the aircraft.
Each aircraft has different features and equipment, and the
before takeoff checklist provided by the WSC manufacturer
should be used to perform the run-up. Here is a general
checklist.
• Verify the strobe light is on (if applicable).
• Trim is set to proper speed for takeoff.
• Brakes are set.
• Ignition check—always divide attention into and out
of the fl ight deck in case the brakes can not hold the
aircraft still at the higher power settings. (Some ignition
checks are done at idle; see POH for engine specifi cs.)
If the brakes start to slip and the aircraft starts moving,
decrease power immediately and reevaluate how to run
up and keep the aircraft stationary during run up. Run up
engine to consistent rpm higher than idle. Switch from
both ignition systems to one and watch for a slight drop
in rpm. Do the same for the other ignition system.
• Verify engine temperatures (EGT, CHT, oil and/or water)
and oil pressure are within the acceptable ranges.
At towered airports, obtain clearance from tower when ready
for takeoff. At nontowered airports, when all air traffi c is
clear from observations and radio communications and while
holding short before the runway boundary (hold short) line,
announce the aircraft is entering the runway. This is a pilot’s
clearance at a self-announce airport to enter the runway. At
all airports, do a visual verifi cation that there are no aircraft
landing before entering the runway.
After Landing
During the after-landing roll, the WSC aircraft should be
gradually slowed to normal taxi speed before turning off
the landing runway. Any signifi cant degree of turn at faster
speeds could result in the WSC aircraft tipping over and
subsequent damage. [Figure 5-68]
Figure 5-69. Typical tie down for light wind. Left hand WSC control
bar pulled back to lower nose for possible headwind, right hand
control bar fastened to front tube.
Figure 5-68. After landing, the pilot slows to the appropriate taxi
speed before following the yellow taxi lines to exit the runway.
Figure 5-70. Pilot’s view of the left hand wing lowered into the wind,
allowing the pilot to exit the aircraft in higher winds with the wind
pushing down on the wing from the side.
Figure 5-71. Wing tied down with tip on ground into wind.
To give full attention to controlling the WSC aircraft during
the landing roll, the after-landing check should be performed
only after the aircraft is brought to a complete stop clear of
the active runway.
Postfl ight, Parking, and Securing
A fl ight is never complete until the engine is shut down and
the WSC aircraft is secured. A pilot should consider this an
essential part of any fl ight. Unless parking in a designated,
supervised area, the pilot should select a location which
prevents propeller or jet blast of other airplanes from striking
the WSC aircraft.
The pilot should always use the procedures in the
manufacturer’s checklist for shutting down the engine and
securing the airplane. Some of the important items include:
• Set the parking brakes on.
• Set throttle to idle and let engine cool down to
manufactures specifi cations.
• Turn ignition switch off.
• Turn electrical units and radios off.
• Turn master electrical switch to off.
After engine shutdown and exiting the aircraft, the pilot
should accomplish a postfl ight inspection. When the fl ight
is complete, the aircraft should be hangared or tied down
appropriately for the situation.
There are a number of ways to park and secure the WSC aircraft
depending on the situation. With normal aircraft tie downs,
little to no wind, and a short time frame for unsupervised
parking, the WSC aircraft can be secured by tying both leading
edge cross bar junctions to the typical airport wing ties. The
control bar is secured to the front tube with a bungee chord
to stabilize the nose or the control bar can be pulled back and
attached to the seat rail to keep the nose down in case of a
possible headwind. [Figure 5-69]
If higher winds are present, the WSC aircraft can be positioned
so the wind is blowing from the side and the wing tip is
lowered on the windward side so the wind is pushing down
on the wing. This can be used to exit the aircraft and tie the
wing down in higher winds. [Figures 5-70 through 5-72]
Figure 5-73. Wing lowered and four point tie-down with carriage
cover to protect flight deck and engine.
Figure 5-72. Group of WSC aircraft tied down with wing tips lowered
into prevailing wind.
For overnight or higher wind tie down, the complete wing
can be lowered to the ground with a four point tie down.
Each wing at the crossbar/leading edge junction plus the
nose and rear of the keel can be tied down for greater
resistance to wind. For humid or dusty areas, a cover is
recommended for the carriage to cover the engine and fl ight
deck. [Figure 5-73]
The best way to secure the WSC aircraft for overnight is to
put it in a hangar. If it must be stored outside, remove the
wing and fold it up so there is no chance of the wing being
damaged in an unforeseen gust front.
Chapter Summary
Prefl ight preparations should include the overall evaluation
of the:
• Pilot: experience, sleep, food and water, drugs or
medications, stress, illness and overall aeromedical
factors, as discussed in Chapter 1, Introduction to
Weight-Shift Control.
• Aircraft: proper transport, fuel, weight (does not
exceed maximum), ARROW, takeoff and landing
requirements, equipment.
• EnVironment: where to fly, weather conditions,
forecast for departure and destination airfi elds, route
of fl ight, and specifi c airport patterns/runway lengths.
Pilot capabilities must be compared to the weather
limitations for the decision of whether to go to the
airfi eld.
• External pressures: schedules, available alternatives,
purpose of fl ight.
Prefl ight procedures include:
• Set up of the wing and mounting the wing on the
carriage (if trailered or taken down).
• Tuning the wing to fl y straight and at the proper trim
speed.
• Prefl ight inspection with written checklist of wing,
carriage, powerplant, systems, and fl ight deck.
• Readying aircraft to enter by proper positioning and
occupant prefl ight brief.
• Engine start, taxi, and performing before takeoff
check.
Postfl ight procedures include:
• Taxi off runway to appropriate location.
• Park, exit, post flight and documenting any
discrepancies.
• Hangar, secure or take down.
Introduction
Flying a weight-shift control (WSC) aircraft is not like
driving an automobile on the highway. It is also different
from operating the controls of an airplane. A WSC pilot
holds the control bar, which is a structural component
of the wing, in his or her hands. This wing is attached to
the carriage and freely rotates laterally and longitudinally
about the hang point. Therefore, the “feel” of the WSC is
completely different from other aircraft because there are no
movable control surfaces actuated through push/pull rods
or cables connected to a separate control actuator, such as
a stick or yoke.
The pilot feels forces on the wing through the control bar,
which is part of the wing structure with no mechanical
advantage. Simply, the feel of the WSC is different from other
aircraft but the basic fl ight maneuvers are similar.
Flight Manuevers
Chapter 6
Figure 6-2. Control bar effect on pitch and airspeed.
Nose up
Nose down
Decreased Pitch
Bar in—Fast Flight
Increased Pitch
Bar out—Slow Flight
Normal Flight
Bar at trim
Figure 6-1. Roll diagram.
Wing Rotation Point
Practicing the basics with precision and understanding the
effects on the pilot and the aircraft develop a “feel” for the
aircraft in fl ight so the pilot can concentrate on the fl ying
mission at hand and not on the mechanical movements. The
ability to perform any assigned maneuver is only a matter of
obtaining a clear visual and mental conception of it so that
perfect performance is a habit without conscious effort.
Begin with the fl ight basics to build a foundation for precision
fl ying. Takeoffs/landings and emergency maneuvers are
covered in later chapters. All fl ying tasks are based on the
four fundamental fl ight maneuvers:
• Straight-and-level fl ight
• Turns
• Climbs
• Descents
Controlled fl ight consists of either one or a combination of
these basic maneuvers.
Effects and the Use of the Controls
In using the fl ight controls, the results should be looked at in
relation to the pilot. The pilot should always be considered
the center of movement of the aircraft or the reference point
from which the movements are judged and described. The
important concept and a foundation for all fl ight maneuvers
is not to think of the controls in terms of “up” or “down” in
respect to the Earth. This is only a relative state to the pilot.
Controls need to be thought of in relation to the pilot, so that
the control use can be for any fl ight attitude whether climbing,
diving, banking, or a combination of these.
Sideways pressure applied by moving the control bar to the
left lowers the right wing in relation to the pilot; moving
the control bar to the right lowers the left wing in relation
to the pilot. This is roll control as discussed in Chapter 2,
Aerodynamics. [Figure 6-1]
Pushing and forward pressure applied to the control bar
results in the WSC aircraft’s nose rising in relation to the pilot
slowing down the WSC, while pulling in or back pressure
results in the nose lowering in relation to the pilot increasing
speed of the WSC. At the same trim speed, increasing the
throttle results in the nose remaining at the same level in
relation to the pilot but raising pitch with increased throttle
and lowering pitch with decreased throttle in relation to the
Earth’s horizon. Both control bar and throttle effect pitch
in relation to the earth’s horizon. This is pitch control, as
discussed in Chapter 2, Aerodynamics. [Figure 6-2]
Figure 6-3. Hold the control bar with a light touch to feel every
movement in the wing.
Figure 6-4. Wind shield blocks the wind from hitting the pilot.
Feel of the Aircraft
All WSC aircraft controls have a natural “live pressure”
while in fl ight and will remain in a neutral position of their
own accord if the aircraft is trimmed properly. The pilot
should think of exerting a force on the controls against this
live pressure or resistance. It is the duration and amount of
force exerted on the control bar that affects the controls and
maneuvers the WSC aircraft.
The actual amount of the control input is of little importance;
but it is important that the pilot maneuver the aircraft by
applying suffi cient control pressure to obtain a desired result,
regardless of how far the control bar is actually moved. The
controls should be held lightly, not grabbed and squeezed. A
common error for beginning pilots is a tendency to “tightly
grip the bar.” This tendency should be avoided as it prevents
the development of “feel,” which is an important part of
aircraft control. [Figure 6-3]
However, for WSC aircraft, the controls do need to be gripped
during moderate and severe turbulence to make sure the wing
does not get ripped out of the pilot’s hands. This is why fl ying
a WSC aircraft in turbulence requires strength and endurance.
It can be fatiguing if the pilot is not used to or in shape for
this type of fl ying. The initial fl ight training should be done
in calm conditions so the student can use a soft touch on the
controls to develop the feel for the WSC aircraft.
The ability to sense a fl ight condition is often called “feel
of the aircraft,” but senses in addition to “feel” are also
involved. Sounds inherent to fl ight are an important sense
in developing “feel.” The air that rushes past an open fl ight
deck can be felt and heard easily within the tolerances of the
Practical Test Standards (PTS) of ± 10 knots. When the level
of sound increases, it indicates that airspeed is increasing. In
addition to the sound of the air, air rushing past is also felt
unless an effective wind screen is placed in front of the pilot
blocking the wind. [Figure 6-4]
The powerplant emits distinctive sound patterns in different
conditions of fl ight. The sound of the engine in cruise fl ight
sounds different from the sound in a glide or a climb. Overall,
there are three sources of actual “feel” that are very important
to the pilot.
1. The fi rst source is the pilot’s own body as it responds
to forces of acceleration. The “G” loads, as discussed
in Chapter 2, imposed on the airframe are also felt by
the pilot. Centripetal acceleration forces the pilot down
into the seat or raises the pilot against the seat belt.
Radial accelerations, although minor for WSC aircraft,
are caused by minor slips or skids in uncoordinated
fl ight and shift the pilot from side to side in the seat.
These forces are all perceptible and useful to the pilot.
Flight time plus the pilot’s desire to feel the aircraft
provides the pilot an excellent “feel” for the aircraft
and the ability to detect even the smallest change in
fl ight. A goal for any pilot should be to constantly
develop a better feel for their aircraft.
Figure 6-5. Pilot’s view of 45° bank angle can be measured with the front tube or the control bar’s angle with the horizon.
2. The response of the controls to the pilot’s touch is
another element of “feel,” and is one that provides
direct information concerning airspeed.
3. Another type of “feel” comes to the pilot through the
airframe. It consists mainly of vibration. An example
is the aerodynamic buffeting and shaking that precedes
a stall. Different airspeeds and power settings can also
provide a subtle feel in aircraft vibrations.
Kinesthesia, or the sensing of changes in direction or speed
of motion, is one of the most important senses a pilot can
develop. When properly developed, kinesthesia can warn the
pilot of changes in speed and/or the beginning of a settling
or mushing of the aircraft.
The senses that contribute to “feel” of the aircraft are inherent
in every person. However, “feel” must be developed. It is a
well established fact that the pilot who develops a “feel” for
the aircraft early in fl ight training has little diffi culty with
advanced fl ight maneuvers.
Attitude Flying
Flying by attitude means visually establishing the aircraft’s
attitude with reference to the natural horizon. Attitude
is the angular difference measured between an aircraft’s
axis and the Earth’s horizon. As discussed in Chapter 2,
Aerodynamics, pitch attitude is the angle formed by the
longitudinal axis, and bank attitude is the angle formed by the
lateral axis. Rotation about the aircraft’s vertical axis (yaw)
is termed an attitude relative to the aircraft’s fl ightpath, but
not relative to the natural horizon.
In attitude fl ying, aircraft control is composed of three
components:
1. Bank control—control of the aircraft about the
longitudinal axis to attain a desired bank angle in
relation to the natural horizon. This can be easily seen
in a WSC aircraft by looking at the angle the front tube
makes with the horizon. [Figure 6-5]
2. Pitch control—control of the aircraft about the lateral
axis to raise and lower the nose in relation to the
natural horizon.
3. Power control—used when the fl ight situation indicates
a need for a change in thrust, which at a constant
speed raises and lowers the nose in relationship to the
horizon similar to pitch control.
Straight-and-Level Flying
Flying straight and level is the most important flight
maneuver to master. It is impossible to emphasize too