strongly the necessity for forming correct habits in fl ying
straight and level. All fl ight is in essence a deviation from
this fundamental fl ight maneuver. It is not uncommon to
fi nd a pilot whose basic fl ying ability consistently falls just
short of minimum expected standards, and upon analyzing
the reasons for the shortcomings discover that the cause is
the inability to fl y straight and level properly.
In learning to control the aircraft in level fl ight, it is important
that the control forces be exerted just enough to produce the
desired result. Some wings are more responsive than others.
The student should learn to associate the apparent movement
of the control bar with the response in pitch and roll. In this
way, the student can develop the ability to regulate the change
desired in the aircraft’s attitude by the amount and direction
of forces applied to the controls without the necessity of
referring to outside references for each minor correction.
Straight-and-level flight is flight in which a constant
heading and altitude are maintained. It is accomplished by
making immediate and measured corrections for deviations
in direction and altitude from unintentional slight turns,
descents, and climbs. Level fl ight is a matter of consciously
fi xing the relationship of the position of something on the
aircraft, used as a reference point with a point on the horizon.
In establishing the reference point on the aircraft, place the
aircraft in the desired position and select a reference point.
A typical reference point on the WSC aircraft is a point on
the front tube.
The WSC aircraft reference point depends on where the
pilot is sitting, the pilot’s height (whether short or tall), and
the pilot’s manner of sitting. It is, therefore, important when
establishing this relationship, the pilot sit in a normal manner;
otherwise the points will not be the same when the normal
position is resumed. [Figures 6-6 and 6-7]
Straight-and-level fl ight should fi rst be practiced in calm air
where the control movements determine the actual movement
through the air and air movement has minimal effect on the
aircraft’s altitude and direction.
A trim speed needs to be set if the WSC aircraft has an infl ight
trim system or the trim speed set on the ground is used. The
throttle is adjusted so the aircraft is fl ying level, not climbing
or descending. This can be determined by looking at the
altimeter or the vertical speed indicator (if so equipped). The
throttle setting is the control for maintaining level fl ight for a
specifi c weight, loading, trim speed, and density altitude.
Level fl ight is maintained by selecting some portion of the
aircraft’s nose as a reference point, and then keeping that
point in a fi xed position relative to the horizon. Using the
principles of attitude fl ying, that position should be cross-
checked occasionally against the altimeter to determine
whether or not the throttle setting and pitch attitude are
correct. If altitude is being gained or lost, the pitch attitude
should be readjusted with the throttle in relation to the
horizon. Then, recheck the altimeter to determine if altitude
is being maintained and adjust the throttle accordingly. The
throttle setting for this condition should be noted and all
future changes in weight, trim speed, and density altitude
referenced to this known throttle setting.
After level fl ight is mastered in calm air, it can be practiced
in air that is moving, minor turbulence or “active air.” The
throttle settings for similar weight, trim, and density altitude
are the same, but more pilot input is required to maintain a
constant altitude. The throttle is used to maintain a selected
distance above the reference point for local air movement, but
the pitch pressure (nose up or nose down) is used to control
this attitude for shorter duration air disturbances.
Typically, updrafts or thermals raise the nose of the aircraft
and downdrafts at the edge of thermals lower the nose of the
aircraft. For minor updrafts the nose is lowered by pitch control
input by the pilot slightly increasing the speed of the aircraft
to keep the pitch at a constant level. In moderate to severe
updrafts, the throttle can be reduced to assist in maintaining
a reasonably constant pitch angle with the horizon.
Similarly for minor downdrafts that lower the nose, the nose
is raised by pitch control input by the pilot slightly decreasing
the speed of the aircraft to keep the pitch at a constant level.
An additional caution for raising the nose and decreasing the
speed is that raising the nose too high could stall the aircraft.
Therefore, caution must be exercised in moderate downdrafts
not to reduce the speed too much to approach a stall speed/
critical angle of attack. Similar to reducing the throttle in
updrafts to reduce pitch angle, increasing the throttle typically
increases the pitch angle. [Figure 6-8]
WSC aircraft can use the front tube as a reference to align
perpendicular with the horizon and the wings leveled. It
should be noted that any time the wings are banked even
slightly, the aircraft will turn.
The front tube can be used as an indicator to determine turn
rate. If the bar is moving side to side to any established
reference point, the aircraft is banked and should be corrected
to eliminate any turn. The objective of straight-and-level
fl ight is to detect small deviations from level fl ight as soon
as they occur, necessitating only small corrections.
Straight-and-level fl ight requires almost no application of
control pressures if the aircraft is properly trimmed and the
Reference point on front tube lined
up with reference point on horizon
Figure 6-7. Pilot’s view of a reference point on the front tube chosen for level flight and lined up with the reference point on the horizon
for straight-and-level flight.
Figure 6-6. A reference point on the horizon chosen.
Reference point on the horizon
Figure 6-8. Thermal updraft and downdraft sequence.
Bar at trimBar in—fast flight Bar out—slow flightBar at trim
Air not rising or fallingA UpdraftB UpdraftB DowndraftC Air not rising or fallingD
air is smooth. For that reason, pilots must not form the habit
of constant, unnecessary control movement. Pilots should
learn to recognize when corrections are necessary, and then
make a measured response easily and naturally.
Common errors in the performance of straight-and-level
fl ight are:
• Attempting to use improper reference points on the
aircraft to establish attitude.
• Forgetting the location of selected reference points.
• Too tight a grip on the fl ight controls resulting in
overcontrol and lack of “feel.”
• Improper scanning and/or devoting insuffi cient time
to outside visual reference (head in the fl ight deck).
• Fixation on the nose (pitch attitude) reference point
only.
• Unnecessary or inappropriate control inputs.
• Failure to make timely and measured control inputs
when deviations from straight-and-level fl ight are
detected.
• Inadequate attention to sensory inputs in developing
feel for the aircraft.
Trim Control
The use of trim systems relieves the pilot of the requirement to
exert pressures for the desired fl ight condition. An improperly
trimmed aircraft requires constant control pressures, produces
pilot tension and fatigue, distracts the pilot from scanning,
and contributes to abrupt and erratic aircraft control.
Most WSC aircraft have a ground adjustable pitch/speed
trim system that adjusts the carriage hang point on the wing
keel that is set for the desired speed. Some WSC aircraft
have additional pitch control systems that can adjust the
trim speed in fl ight as described in Chapter 3, Components
and Systems.
There is no yaw trim but the roll trim is usually adjusted on
the ground for a wing that has a turn in it. Roll trim is usually
adjusted so the wing fl ies straight in cruise fl ight. This is a
balance between the full power torque of the engine wanting
to turn it in one direction and minimum power when the WSC
aircraft is in a glide. WSC pilots usually have to exert some
pilot roll input for high power engines at full power climb to
fl y straight because of the engine turning effect.
Level Turns
A turn is made by banking the wings in the direction of
the desired turn. A specifi c angle of bank is selected by the
pilot, control pressures are applied to achieve the desired
bank angle, and appropriate control pressures are exerted to
maintain the desired bank angle once it is established.
Figure 6-9. Roll control into and out of turns.
Entering A TurnEntering a Turn
Exiting a Turn
A B C
D E F
Banking is performed with the following steps
[Figure 6-9]:
Entering a Turn
A. Straight fl ight
B. Pilot applies sideways pressure to the control bar
shifting the weight towards the direction of the desired
turn initiating the bank.
C. Turn is established and maintained by moving the
control bar back to the center position.
Exiting a Turn
D. Pilot is maintaining stabilized bank and a resultant
turn.
E. Pilot shifts weight to opposite side to initiate exit out
of the turn.
F. Straight fl ight is established and maintained by moving
the control bar back to the center position.
Coordinating the Controls
Flight controls are used in close coordination when making
level turns. Their functions are:
• The WSC is banked with side to side pressure with the
control bar and the bank angle established determines
the rate of turn at any given airspeed.
• The throttle provides additional thrust used to maintain
the WSC in level fl ight.
• Pitch control moves the nose of the WSC aircraft up
or down in relation to the pilot and perpendicular to
the wings. Doing this sets the proper pitch attitude and
speed in the turn.
Turns are classified to determine the bank angle as
follows:
• Shallow turns are those in which the bank is less than
approximately 20°.
• Medium turns are those resulting from a degree of
bank that is approximately 20° to 45°.
• Steep turns are those resulting from a degree of bank
that is 45° or more.
Changing the direction of the wing’s lift toward one side or
the other causes the aircraft to be pulled in that direction.
When an aircraft is flying straight and level, the total
lift is acting perpendicular to the wings and to the Earth.
[Figure 6-10] As the WSC is banked into a turn, the lift
then becomes the resultant of two components. One, the
vertical lift component, continues to act perpendicular to
the Earth and opposes gravity. Second, the horizontal lift
component (centripetal) acts parallel to the Earth’s surface
Figure 6-10. WSC aircraft flying straight (left) and turning with the same lift and weight (right).
Lift
Centrifugal force
Horizontal component
Weight
Weight
Vertical component
Resultant Load
Total Lift
The additional load or G force in a medium banked turn is felt
as the pilot is pushed down on the seat with enough force for
this effect to be noticed. After the bank has been established
in a medium turn, all side-to-side roll pressure applied may
be relaxed, but forward pressure to maintain a higher angle of
attack is still necessary in a steeper bank. The WSC aircraft
remains at the selected bank with no further tendency to roll
back to level since all the forces are equalized.
During the turn, roll, pitch, and throttle controls are adjusted
to maintain the desired bank angle, speed, and level altitude.
Coordinated fl ight is the coordination of the three controls
to achieve a smooth turn to the desired bank angle while
maintaining a constant speed and altitude.
The roll-out from a turn is similar to the roll-in, except fl ight
controls are applied in the opposite direction. As the angle
of bank decreases, the pitch pressure should be relaxed as
necessary to maintain speed and the throttle decreased to
maintain altitude.
Since the aircraft continues turning as long as there is any
bank, the rollout must be started before reaching the desired
heading. The amount of lead required to roll-out of the
desired heading depends on the degree of bank used in the
turn. Normally, the lead is one-half the degrees of bank.
For example, if the bank is 30°, lead the rollout by 15°. As
the wings become level, the control pressures should be
smoothly relaxed so that the controls are neutralized as the
aircraft returns to straight-and-level fl ight. As the rollout is
being completed, attention should be given to outside visual
references to determine that the wings are being leveled and
the turn stopped.
and opposes inertia (apparent centrifugal force). These two
lift components act at right angles to each other causing the
resultant total lifting force to act perpendicular to the banked
wing of the aircraft. It is the horizontal lift component that
actually turns the WSC aircraft. [Figure 6-10]
Shallow turns are accomplished by moving the control bar
to the side slightly, waiting for the wing to roll the desired
amount, and then releasing the side pressure on the control bar
back to the center position. The WSC aircraft will stabilize in
the turn with no control pressures required. During a shallow
turn there is no signifi cant increase in airspeed or G forces
that can easily be noticed by the student. [Figure 6-11] Once
a shallow turn is initiated, it is a good practice to be stabilized
at a constant bank and then exit to a predetermined heading.
To exit the shallow turn, opposite sideways pressure must
be put on the control bar to bring the WSC aircraft back to
level fl ight.
For higher banked turns, the entry speed should be well
above 1.3 times the stall speed, which increases signifi cantly
in higher banked turns. As an example, at least 1.5 times the
stall speed should be the entry speed for a 40 degree banked
turn to maintain the 1.3 times the stall speed safety margin.
Wings with a trim speed of 1.3 times the stall speed require
an increase in speed slightly. In all constant altitude, constant
airspeed turns, it is necessary to increase the angle of attack
of the wing when rolling into the turn by pushing out on
the control bar. This is required because part of the vertical
lift has been diverted to horizontal lift. Thus, the total lift
must be increased to compensate for this loss. Similarly, the
throttle must be increased to maintain the same altitude in
steeper banks.
Figure 6-11. Pilot’s view of a shallow turn with a 20° bank.
and medium banked turns. Do not exceed the bank angle
limitation in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH).
The pilot’s posture while seated in the aircraft is very
important, particularly during turns. It affects the interpretation
of outside visual references. Pilots should not lean away from
the turn in an attempt to remain upright in relation to the
ground rather than ride with the aircraft. This should be a
habit developed early so that the pilot can properly learn to
use visual references.
Beginning students should not use large control applications
because this produces a rapid roll rate and allows little time
for corrections before the desired bank is reached. Slower
(small control displacement) roll rates provide more time to
make necessary pitch and bank corrections. As soon as the
aircraft rolls from the wings-level attitude, the nose should
also start to move along the horizon, increasing its rate of
travel proportionately as the bank is increased.
The following variations provide excellent guides. If the
nose moves up or down when entering a bank, excessive or
insuffi cient pitch control is being applied. During all turns,
the controls are used to correct minor variations as they are
in straight-and-level fl ight.
To understand the relationship between airspeed, bank, and
radius of turn, it should be noted that the rate of turn at any
given true airspeed depends on the horizontal lift component.
The horizontal lift component varies in proportion to the
amount of bank. Therefore, the rate of turn at a given true
airspeed increases as the angle of bank is increased. On the
other hand, when a turn is made at a higher true airspeed at a
given bank angle, the inertia is greater and the horizontal lift
component required for the turn is greater causing the turning
rate to become slower. Therefore, at a given angle of bank, a
higher true airspeed makes the radius of turn larger because
the aircraft is turning at a slower rate. [Figure 6-12]
When changing from a shallow bank to a medium bank, the
airspeed of the wing on the outside of the turn increases in
relation to the inside wing as the radius of turn decreases. The
additional lift developed because of this increase in speed of
the wing balances the inherent lateral stability of the aircraft.
At any given airspeed, roll pressure is not required to maintain
the bank. If the bank is allowed to increase from a medium
to a steep bank, the radius of turn decreases further.
A steep bank is similar to a medium bank but all factors
increase. Roll and pitch control pressures must increase,
throttle must increase further to maintain altitude, and the
G forces increase signifi cantly. Students should build up
to steep banked turns gradually after perfecting shallow
Figure 6-12. Angle of airspeed and bank regulate rate and radius of turn.
30° angle of bank
When airspeed is held constant,
a larger angle of bank will result
in a smaller turn radius and a
greater turn rate.
Constant Airspeed
20° angle of bank
10° angle of bank
40 knots
When angle of bank is held
constant, a lower airspeed will
result in a smaller turn radius
and greater turn rate.
Constant Angle of Bank
50 knots
60 knots
Figure 6-13. When a WSC aircraft stabilizes in a descent or a climb, the flightpath is a declined or inclined plane.
Descending Ascending
Declined Plane
Flight Path
Inclined Plane
Flight Path
Instruction in level turns should begin with changing attitude
from level to bank, bank to level, and so on with a slight pause
at the termination of each phase. This pause allows the WSC
to free itself from the effects of any misuse of the controls
and ensures a correct start for the next turn. During these
exercises, the idea of control forces, rather than movement,
should be emphasized by pointing out the resistance of the
controls to varying forces applied to them.
Common errors in the performance of level turns are:
• Failure to adequately clear the area before beginning
the turn.
• Attempting to sit up straight, in relation to the ground,
during a turn, rather than riding with the aircraft.
• Failure to maintain a constant bank angle during the
turn.
• Gaining profi ciency in turns in only one direction.
• Failure to coordinate the angle of attack to maintain
the proper airspeed.
• Failure to coordinate the use of throttle to maintain
level fl ight.
• Altitude gain/loss during the turn.
Climbs and Climbing Turns
When an aircraft enters a climb, it changes its fl ightpath
from level fl ight to an inclined plane or climb attitude. As
discussed in chapter 2, weight in a climb no longer acts in a
direction perpendicular to the fl ightpath. It acts in a rearward
direction. This causes an increase in total drag requiring an
increase in thrust (power) to balance the forces. An aircraft
can only sustain a climb angle when there is suffi cient thrust
to offset increased drag; therefore, climb is limited by the
thrust available. [Figure 6-13]
Like other maneuvers, climbs should be performed using
outside visual references and flight instruments. It is
important that the pilot know the engine power settings
and pitch attitudes that produce the following conditions
of climb:
• Normal climb—performed at an airspeed recommended
by the aircraft manufacturer. Normal climb speed is
generally the WSC best rate of climb (V Y) speed as
discussed below. Faster airspeeds should be used for
climbing in turbulent air.
• Best rate of climb (V Y)—the airspeed at which an
aircraft will gain the greatest amount of altitude in a
given unit of time (maximum rate of climb in feet per
minute (fpm)). The VY made at full allowable power
is a maximum climb. This is the most effi cient speed
because it has the best lift over drag ratio for the
aircraft. This speed is also the best glide ratio speed
used for going the greatest distance for the amount
of altitude, as discussed later in this chapter. Each
aircraft manufacturer is different but a good rule of
thumb is that the V Y is 1.3 times the stall speed. It
must be fully understood that attempts to obtain more
climb performance than the aircraft is capable of by
increasing pitch attitude results in a decrease in the