Introduction
This chapter discusses takeoffs and departure climbs in
weight-shift control (WSC) aircraft with tricycle landing
gear under normal conditions, crosswinds, and under
conditions which require maximum performance. A thorough
knowledge of takeoff principles, both in theory and practice,
is extremely valuable throughout a pilot’s career. It often
prevents an attempted takeoff that would result in an accident,
or during an emergency, makes a takeoff possible under
critical conditions in which a pilot with less knowledge and
lesser technique would normally fail.
Takeoff and
Departure Climbs
Chapter 7
Figure 7-1. Takeoff and climb.
TAKEOFF ROLL LIFT-OFF CLIMB EN ROUTE
TAKEOFF POWER ROTATION BEST CLIMB SPEED SAFE MANEUVERING
ALTITUDE CLIMB POWER
The takeoff, though relatively simple, often presents the most
hazards of any part of a fl ight. The importance of thorough
knowledge, faultless technique, and sound judgment cannot
be overemphasized.
It must be remembered that the manufacturer’s recommended
procedures, including confi guration and airspeeds, and other
information relevant to takeoffs and departure climbs in
a specifi c make and model WSC aircraft are contained in
the Airplane Flight Manual/Pilot’s Operating Handbook
(AFM/POH). If any of the information in this chapter differs
from the manufacturer’s recommendations as contained in
the AFM/POH, the manufacturer’s recommendations take
precedence.
Terms and Defi nitions
Although the takeoff and climb is one continuous maneuver,
it is divided into three separate steps for purposes of
explanation: takeoff roll, lift-off, and initial climb after
becoming airborne. [Figure 7-1]
• Takeoff roll ( ground roll)—the portion of the takeoff
procedure during which the aircraft is accelerated from
standstill to an airspeed that provides suffi cient lift for
it to become airborne.
• Lift-off ( rotation)—the act of becoming airborne as a
result of the wings lifting the aircraft off the ground
or the pilot rotating the nose up, increasing the angle
of attack to start a climb.
• Initial climb—begins when the aircraft leaves the
ground and an initial pitch attitude has been established
to climb away from the takeoff area. Normally, it is
considered complete when the aircraft has reached a
safe maneuvering altitude, or an en route climb has
been established.
Prior to Takeoff
Before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area, the pilot
should ensure that the engine is operating properly and that
all controls, including trim (if equipped), are set in accordance
with the before takeoff checklist. In addition, the pilot must
make certain that the approach and takeoff paths are clear
of other aircraft. At uncontrolled airports, pilots should
announce their intentions on the common traffi c advisory
frequency (CTAF) assigned to that airport. When operating
from an airport with an operating control tower, pilots must
contact the tower operator and receive a takeoff clearance
before taxiing onto the active runway.
It is not recommended to take off immediately behind
another aircraft, particularly large, heavily loaded transport
airplanes because of the wake turbulence that is generated.
Even smaller aircraft can generate vortices that can cause the
WSC aircraft to lose control during takeoff. Always wait for
aircraft vortices to clear before taking off.
While taxiing onto the runway, the pilot can select ground
reference points that are aligned with the runway direction
as aids to maintaining directional control during the takeoff.
These may be runway centerline markings, runway lighting,
distant trees, towers, buildings, or mountain peaks.
Normal Takeoff
A normal takeoff is one in which the aircraft is headed into
the wind, or the wind is very light. Also, the takeoff surface is
fi rm and of suffi cient length to permit the aircraft to gradually
accelerate to normal lift-off and climb-out speed, and there
are no obstructions along the takeoff path.
Figure 7-2. Lined up in the middle of the runway and ready to apply
full power for takeoff.
There are two reasons for making a takeoff as nearly into
the wind as possible. First, the aircraft’s speed while on
the ground is much lower than if the takeoff were made
downwind, thus reducing wear and stress on the landing
gear. Second, a shorter ground roll and, therefore, much
less runway length is required to develop the minimum lift
necessary for takeoff and climb. Since the aircraft depends
on airspeed in order to fl y, a headwind provides some of that
airspeed, even with the aircraft motionless, from the wind
fl owing over the wings.
Takeoff Roll
After taxiing onto the runway, the WSC aircraft should be
carefully aligned with the intended takeoff direction and
the nosewheel positioned straight down the runway on the
centerline. After releasing the brakes, the throttle should
be advanced smoothly and continuously to takeoff power.
[Figure 7-2] This can be done with the foot or the hand
cruise throttle.
The advantage of using the foot throttle is that the takeoff
can be aborted quickly if required. The disadvantage is that
the foot can slip off or be knocked off during the critical
takeoff phase of fl ight. The advantage of using the hand cruise
throttle during takeoff is having a solid and set throttle that the
pilot does not have to worry about holding during the takeoff
phase of fl ight. Students have been known to release the foot
throttle on takeoff, resulting in catastrophic consequences
during the lift-off and initial climb phases of fl ight. Students
may be encouraged to use the hand throttle by the instructor
or the instructor must be able to immediately apply the hand
or secondary foot throttle if a student lets up on the throttle
during this critical takeoff and climb phase.
An abrupt application of power may cause the aircraft to
yaw sharply to the left (or right depending on the propeller
rotation) because of the torque effects of the engine and
propeller. This is most apparent in high horsepower engines.
As the aircraft starts to roll forward, the pilot should ensure
that both feet are on the front steering fork and not applying
the brake.
As speed is gained, the control bar fore and aft pitch tends
to assume a neutral trim position. The wing should be
maintained level side to side with the control bar. At the same
time, directional control should be maintained with smooth,
prompt, positive nosewheel steering throughout the takeoff
roll. The effects of engine torque at the initial speeds tend to
pull the nose to the left (or right depending on the propeller
rotation). The pilot must steer the WSC aircraft straight down
the middle of the runway with the feet. The positioning of the
wing has no effect of steering on the ground. The common
saying among WSC pilots is “you steer with your feet, you
fl y with your hands.”
While the speed of the takeoff roll increases, increasingly
more pressure is felt on the control bar to the ground roll
trim position. Letting the wing pitch pressures determine the
fore and aft control bar position provides the least drag for the
WSC aircraft to accelerate. The pilot maintains directional
control down the center of the runway with the foot steering,
keeps the wings level side to side, and allows the wing to
determine the pitch angle during the acceleration.
Lift-Off
Since a good takeoff depends on the proper takeoff attitude,
it is important to know how this attitude appears and how it
is attained. The ideal takeoff attitude requires only minimum
pitch adjustments shortly after the airplane lifts off to attain
the speed for the best rate of climb (V Y). [Figure 7-3]
The pitch attitude necessary for the aircraft to accelerate
to VY speed should be demonstrated by the instructor and
memorized by the student. Initially, the student pilot may
have a tendency to hold excessive control bar forward/nose
up pressure just after lift-off, resulting in an abrupt pitch-up.
The fl ight instructor should be prepared for this. For a normal
takeoff, the WSC aircraft should lift off the ground gradually
and smoothly.
Each type of WSC aircraft has a best pitch attitude for normal
lift-off; however, varying conditions may make a difference
in the required takeoff technique. A rough fi eld, a smooth
fi eld, a hard surface runway, or a short or soft, muddy fi eld,
calls for a slightly different technique as does smooth air in
contrast to a strong, gusty wind. The different techniques
for those other-than-normal conditions are discussed later
in this chapter.
As the WSC aircraft accelerates and obtains the speed it
needs to lift off, a slight push forward on the control bar
Figure 7-3. Initial roll and takeoff attitude.
Initial Roll Takeoff Attitude
provides the initial attitude to lift-off. This is often referred
to as “rotating.” At this point, the climb speed should be
immediately established for the particular condition. For calm
winds, this would be the trim position or the manufacturer
recommended takeoff safety airspeed. The wings must be
kept level by applying side to side pressure as necessary.
Since some forward pressure was required to rotate, this
pressure must be relaxed smoothly so that takeoff attitude
is not too high. This requires the control bar being brought
back to trim and applying some nose down pressure to avoid
popping off as the WSC aircraft leaves the ground. Each make
and model is different and the high power WSC aircraft must
provide more nose down pressure after rotation to keep the
attitude low. A good takeoff is a smooth and gradual liftoff.
It is important to hold the correct attitude constant after
rotation and liftoff.
As the aircraft leaves the ground, the pilot must continue to
be concerned with maintaining the wings in a level attitude,
as well as holding the proper pitch attitude. An outside visual
scan to attain/maintain proper pitch and bank attitude must
be intensifi ed at this critical point.
During takeoffs in a strong, gusty wind, it is advisable that an
extra margin of speed be obtained before the WSC aircraft is
allowed to leave the ground. A takeoff at the normal takeoff
speed may result in a lack of positive control, or a stall,
when the WSC aircraft e ncounters a sudden lull in strong,
gusty wind, or other turbulent air currents. In this case, the
pilot should allow the aircraft to stay on the ground longer
by pulling the control bar towards the chest keeping the nose
down to attain more speed; then make a smooth, positive
rotation to leave the ground.
Initial Climb
Upon lift-off, the WSC aircraft should be fl ying at the
approximate pitch attitude that allows it to accelerate to at
least the manufacturers takeoff safety speed. This is usually
close to the best climb rate speed VY providing the greatest
altitude gain in a period of time. Higher speeds should be
used if the air is turbulent to assure the WSC does not stall
from a strong wind gust. This speed should be maintained
during the initial climb out in case of an engine failure. This
is especially important with higher power engines and larger
wings to avoid a high pitch attitude during this critical phase
of the takeoff. With a lower pitch attitude and a faster speed,
the WSC aircraft can recover easier from an engine failure on
takeoff. This is discussed in greater detail in the emergency
procedures chapter of this handbook. For example, from
liftoff to 200 feet it is a good practice to keep a low pitch
angle to anticipate an engine failure; above 200 feet, VY can
be used as a climb speed. [Figures 7-4 and 7-5]
After liftoff and throughout the climb, the engine instruments
should be checked for proper cooling and oil pressure (if so
equipped) since this is the critical time when temperature
rises and should stabilize within the manufacturer’s
specifi cations.
The manufacturer’s recommended takeoff power should be
maintained until reaching an altitude of at least 500 feet above
the surrounding terrain or obstacles. The combination of VY
and takeoff power assures the maximum altitude gained in
the time during takeoff. This provides the pilot the greatest
altitude from which the aircraft can be safely maneuvered in
case of an engine failure or other emergency.
Figure 7-4. Initial takeoff grass strip with control bar pulled in
slightly for a higher speed after liftoff in case of engine failure.
Figure 7-5. Best climb speed control bar position for this WSC is
shown after initial climb where there is sufficient altitude for easy
recovery in case of engine failure.
Figure 7-6. Pilots view showing WSC centered in the middle of the
runway during initial climb.
Since the power on the initial climb is fi xed at the takeoff
power setting, the airspeed must be controlled by making
slight pitch adjustments using the control bar. However, the
pilot should not fi xate on the airspeed indicator when making
these pitch changes, but continue to scan outside to adjust the
attitude in relation to the horizon and the feel of the aircraft.
The WSC aircraft can be fl own by using bar position and the
feel of the air to determine proper airspeed; it is not necessary
to look at the airspeed indicator to determine exact airspeed.
In accordance with the principles of fl ying a WSC aircraft,
the pilot should fi rst make the necessary pitch change with
reference to the bar position, and then glance at the airspeed
indicator as a check to see if the new speed is correct.
After the recommended climb airspeed has been established
and a safe maneuvering altitude has been reached, the power
should be adjusted to the recommended climb setting (if
different) and the WSC aircraft trimmed (if so equipped) to
relieve the control pressures. This makes it easier to hold a
constant attitude and airspeed.
During initial climb, it is important that the takeoff path
remain aligned with the runway to avoid drifting into
obstructions or the path of another aircraft that may be taking
off from a parallel runway. Proper scanning techniques are
essential to a safe takeoff and climb, not only for maintaining
attitude and direction, but also for collision avoidance in the
airport area. [Figure 7-6]
When the student pilot nears the solo stage of fl ight training,
it should be explained that the aircraft’s takeoff performance
is much different when the instructor is out of the aircraft.
Due to decreased load, the WSC aircraft becomes airborne
sooner and climbs more rapidly. The pitch attitude that the
student has learned to associate with initial climb differs
signifi cantly due to decreased weight. This can be a dramatic
effect since a 250 pound instructor could reduce the total
weight of the WSC aircraft by 30 percent. This gives the
student the sensation of lying on his or her back during initial
takeoff and the reaction is to let off the throttle with serious
consequences if the student is using the foot throttle. It must
be emphasized by the instructor that the student will seem
to be rotated and going straight up, but not to let up on the
throttle. The reaction of the student is to pull in the control
bar to lower the high pitch attitude. This is where the cruise
throttle should be used to eliminate this common problem.
The increase in performance is signifi cant when the student
fi rst solos in the same aircraft, which must be explained
and understood. If the situation is unexpected, it may result
in increased tension that may remain throughout the fl ight.
Frequently, the existence of this tension and the uncertainty
that develops due to the perception of an “abnormal” takeoff
results in poor performance on the subsequent landing.
Common errors in the performance of normal takeoffs and
departure climbs are:
• Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing
into position on the active runway.
• Abrupt use of the throttle.
• Letting off the foot throttle after takeoff.
• Failure to check engine instruments for signs of
malfunction after liftoff and climb.
• Failure to anticipate the aircraft’s left turning tendency
on initial acceleration and takeoff.
• Overcorrecting for left turning tendency.
• Overcorrecting for roll.
• Relying solely on the airspeed indicator rather
than developing a feel for indications of speed and
controllability during acceleration and lift-off.
• Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude.
• Overcontrol of pitch during initial lift-off to
climbout.
• Failure to attain/maintain best rate of climb airspeed
(VY).
• Failure to employ the principles of attitude fl ying
during climb-out, resulting in “chasing” the airspeed
indicator.
Crosswind Takeoff
While it is usually preferable to take off directly into the
wind whenever possible or practical, there are many instances
when circumstances or judgment indicate otherwise.
Therefore, the pilot must be familiar with the principles and
techniques involved in crosswind takeoffs, as well as those
for normal takeoffs.
The manufacturers maximum wind and crosswind component
in the POH should not be exceeded. The following procedures
are for operation within these limitations.
Takeoff Roll
The technique used during the initial takeoff roll in a crosswind
is generally the same as used in a normal takeoff, except that
the pilot must control the wing’s tendency to weathervane
into the wind during the takeoff roll. Additionally, the pilot
should keep the WSC aircraft on the ground and accelerate
to a higher speed before rotation.
As the aircraft is taxied into takeoff position, it is essential that
the windsock and other wind direction indicators be checked
so that the presence of a crosswind may be recognized and
anticipated. During taxi and takeoff, the windward side of
the wing needs to be slightly lowered so as to not let the
wind get under it and lift it off; but not too low or additional
pilot effort is required and unnecessary stress is placed on
the carriage.
The crosswind takeoff is performed similar to the normal
takeoff except two different techniques are utilized. First, as
the WSC aircraft accelerates and the pilot steers the carriage
straight down the runway, the wing will want to weathervane
into the wind. This creates stress on the wing attachment to
the carriage, the carriage mast, and the keel of the carriage.
Therefore, the pilot must hold the wing control bar straight
to the carriage which requires signifi cant force and muscle.
Second, the pilot must accelerate to a higher speed before
rotating to account for the crosswind component. This requires
the nose to be held down to prevent the WSC from popping
off the ground before the higher airspeed is obtained.
Since this technique requires the pilot to muscle the wing
rather than using a light touch, it requires a mastery of
the normal takeoff before crosswind takeoffs should be
attempted. As the WSC aircraft accelerates down the runway,
the forces of the wing try to weathervane it into the wind and
the nose raises up to trim. The wing should be held straight
with the nose down until rotation where the wing is held
straight and the nose raised.
Rotation and Lift-Off
When a faster rotation speed than normal takeoff is achieved,
a smooth but quicker push out to rotate is desired to get
the front and rear wheels into the air quickly, avoiding any
tendency to remain on the rear wheels. After lift-off, the WSC
automatically rotates into the relative wind since momentum
is straight down the runway and the characteristics of the wing
point it directly into the relative wind. The WSC sets up the
wind correction angle (or crab angle as it is also called) as it
lifts off. [Figure 7-7]
Initial Climb
After lift-off, the WSC aircraft is pointed toward the wind
and the ground track is headed straight down the runway
centerline. Maintain this ground track aligned directly
down the centerline of the runway “crabbing” into the
wind. Crabbing is a term used to adjust fl ight controls into
the crosswind to maintain a straight ground track while the
WSC is pointed towards the wind, as seen in Figure 7-8.
To maintain the ground track it is important to look straight
down the runway centerline and steer to stay on that ground
track even though the WSC is pointed towards the wind
and not directly down the runway. Because the force of a
crosswind may vary markedly within a few hundred feet of
the ground, frequent checks of actual ground track should be
made [Figure 7-7] or the WSC could drift to the side if the
wind correction angle is not maintained. The remainder of
TAKEOFF ROLL ROTATION—LIFT-OFF CLIMB
Wind
Figure 7-8. Crosswind takeoff.
Figure 7-7. Wing correction angle (or crab angle as is is commonly
called).
Ground Track Flightpath
Heading
Wind
Correction
Angle
(Crab
Angle)
Wind
the climb technique is the same used for normal takeoffs and
climbs maintaining the proper ground track with the proper
wing correction angle/crab angle. [Figure 7-8]
In addition to normal takeoffs, additional common errors in
the performance of crosswind takeoffs are:
• Letting the windward side of the wing get too high.
• Allowing the wing to weathervane into the wind
during the takeoff roll.
• Not obtaining additional speed before rotation.
• Too slow of a rotation during lift-off.
• Inadequate drift correction after lift-off.
Ground Effect on Takeoff
Ground effect is a condition of improved performance
encountered when the aircraft is operating very close to
the ground. Ground effect can be detected and measured
up to an altitude of about one wingspan above the surface.
[Figure 7-9] However, ground effect is most signifi cant when
the WSC aircraft is maintaining a constant attitude at low
airspeed and low altitude. Examples are during takeoff when
the aircraft lifts off and accelerates to climb speed, and also
during the landing fl are before touchdown. When the wing
is under the infl uence of ground effect, there is a reduction
in upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices.
Since the WSC wing is a high wing aircraft, the effects
are not as pronounced as a low wing airplane, but during
rotation, the reduction in induced drag is about 25 percent
and decreases as the WSC aircraft climbs. At high speeds
where parasite drag dominates, induced drag is a small part
of the total drag. Consequently, the effects of ground effect
are of greater concern during takeoff and landing.