Figure 7-9. Ground effect area.
Significant ground effect
with wheels just off the ground Noticeable ground effect
up to half wingspan
No Noticeable ground effect with wing
at full wingspan above the ground
Wingspan
On takeoff, the takeoff roll, lift-off, and the beginning of the
initial climb are accomplished in the ground effect area. As
the aircraft lifts off and climbs out of the ground effect area
the following occurs.
• The WSC aircraft requires an increase in angle of
attack to maintain the same lift coeffi cient.
• The WSC aircraft experiences an increase in induced
drag and thrust required.
Due to the reduced drag in ground effect, the aircraft may
seem capable of taking off below the recommended airspeed
with less thrust. However, as the aircraft rises out of ground
effect with an insuffi cient airspeed, initial climb performance
may prove to be marginal due to increased drag. Under
conditions of high density altitude, high temperature, and/or
maximum gross weight, the aircraft may become airborne
at an insuffi cient airspeed but unable to climb out of ground
effect. Consequently, the aircraft may not be able to clear
obstructions or may settle back on the runway. The point to
remember is that additional power is required to compensate
for increases in drag that occur as an aircraft leaves ground
effect. But during an initial climb, the engine is already
developing maximum power. The only alternative is to lower
pitch attitude to gain additional airspeed, which results in
inevitable altitude loss. Therefore, under marginal conditions,
it is important that the aircraft take off at the recommended
speed that provides adequate initial climb performance.
Ground effect is important to normal fl ight operations. If
the runway is long enough, or if no obstacles exist, ground
effect can be used to advantage by utilizing the reduced drag
to improve initial acceleration. Additionally, the procedure
for takeoff from unsatisfactory surfaces is to take as much
weight on the wings as possible during the ground run, and to
lift off with the aid of ground effect before true fl ying speed
is attained. It is then necessary to reduce the angle of attack
to attain normal airspeed before attempting to fl y away from
the ground effect area.
Short Field Takeoff and Steepest Angle
Climb
Takeoffs and climbs from fi elds in which the takeoff area is
short or the available takeoff area is restricted by obstructions
require the pilot to operate the WSC aircraft at the limit of its
takeoff performance capabilities. To depart from such an area
safely, the pilot must exercise positive and precise control of
attitude and airspeed so that takeoff and climb performance
results in the shortest ground roll and the steepest angle of
climb.
The achieved result should be consistent with the performance
section of the AFM/POH. In all cases, the power setting,
trim setting, airspeed, and procedures prescribed by the
manufacturer should be followed.
Figure 7-10. Short field takeoff.
Some authorities prefer to hold the brakes until the maximum
obtainable engine revolutions per minute (rpm) is achieved
before allowing the WSC aircraft to begin its takeoff run.
However, it has not been established that this procedure
results in a shorter takeoff run in all WSC aircraft, many of
which can not hold the brakes at full throttle. If the brakes
are not held with the throttle advanced to full and then
released, takeoff power should be applied immediately to
full throttle as fast as possible without the engine bogging
down to accelerate the aircraft as rapidly as possible. The
WSC aircraft should be allowed to roll with the wing fi nding
the trim position for minimum drag during acceleration to
the lift-off speed.
Lift-Off and Climb Out
At VX speed, the WSC aircraft should be smoothly and fi rmly
rotated by applying control bar forward pressure to an attitude
that results in the V X airspeed. After becoming airborne, a
wings-level climb should be maintained at VX until obstacles
have been cleared. Thereafter, the pitch attitude may be
lowered slightly and the climb continued at V Y speed until
reaching a safe maneuvering altitude.
Remember that an attempt to rotate off the ground prematurely
or to climb too steeply may cause the WSC aircraft to settle
back to the runway or into the obstacles. Even if the aircraft
remains airborne, the initial climb remains fl at and climb
performance/obstacle clearance ability is seriously degraded
until VX airspeed is achieved. [Figure 7-10]
In order to accomplish a short fi eld takeoff and steepest angle
climb safely, the pilot must have adequate knowledge in the
use and effectiveness of the best angle-of-climb (VX) speed
and the best rate-of-climb (VY) speed for the specifi c make
and model of WSC aircraft being fl own.
The speed for VX is that which results in the greatest gain in
altitude for a given distance over the ground. V X is usually
less than VY but greater than minimum controlled airspeed. It
should be noted that this maneuver is not performed in normal
situations. Flying at V X speed close to the ground in gusty
winds can result in a stall with catastrophic consequences.
If clearing an obstacle is questionable, the WSC aircraft
should be packed up and trailered away. If a pilot decides to
perform a short fi eld takeoff, then a number of factors can
be optimized to contribute to a short fi eld takeoff such as
leaving your passenger and/or baggage in the area, waiting
for favorable winds or lower density altitude, and picking the
longest runway path with the shortest obstacle to clear.
However, if a short fi eld takeoff is going to be performed
and all possible factors have been optimized, the following
procedure is provided. The procedure is similar to the normal
takeoff but the following additional procedure is used for
this maneuver.
Takeoff Roll
Taking off from a short fi eld requires the takeoff to be started
from the very beginning of the takeoff area. The WSC
manufacturer’s recommended specifi c trim setting should be
set before starting the takeoff roll. This permits the pilot to
give full attention to the proper technique and the aircraft’s
performance throughout the takeoff.
Figure 7-11. Soft field takeoff limitation for WSC aircraft: front wheel digs in and WSC aircraft rolls forward.
In addition to normal takeoffs, common errors in the
performance of short fi eld takeoffs are:
• Deciding to do a questionable short fi eld takeoff
when the WSC aircraft can be packed up and driven
away.
• Failure to adequately determine the best path with the
longest run and shortest obstacle.
• Failure to utilize all available runway/takeoff area.
• Failure to wait for the best atmospheric conditions of
density altitude and wind direction.
• Failure to reduce all possible weight from the WSC
aircraft.
• Failure to have the WSC aircraft properly trimmed
prior to takeoff.
• Premature lift-off resulting in high drag.
• Holding the WSC aircraft on the ground
unnecessarily.
• Inadequate rotation resulting in excessive speed after
lift-off.
• Inability to attain/maintain best V X airspeed.
• Fixation on the airspeed indicator during initial
climb.
Soft/Rough Field Takeoff and Climb
Takeoffs and climbs from soft fi elds require the use of
operational techniques for getting the WSC aircraft airborne
as quickly as possible to eliminate the drag caused by tall
grass, soft sand, mud, and snow, and may or may not require
climbing over an obstacle. The technique makes judicious
use of ground effect and requires a feel for the WSC aircraft
and fi ne control touch. These same techniques are also useful
on a rough fi eld where it is advisable to get the aircraft off
the ground as soon as possible to avoid damaging the landing
gear.
Soft surfaces or long, wet grass usually reduce the aircraft’s
acceleration during the takeoff roll so much that adequate
takeoff speed might not be attained if normal takeoff
techniques were employed.
It should be emphasized that the WSC aircraft is different
from most aircraft. The high wing creates a high center of
gravity in which the front wheel can bog down in soft fi elds
and fl ip the WSC aircraft forward. The propeller in the
back pushing down on the front wheel also contributes to
this unique situation. This is a limitation for WSC aircraft
that should not be ignored. WSC aircraft that land in soft
fi elds or sand may not be able to take off. There is a wide
variation of manufacturer designs with the least preferable
being a skinny, high pressure, highly loaded front tire. WSC
aircraft with large wide tires that can be operated at low
pressure are designed for operation in soft and rough fi elds.
[Figures 7-11 through 7-13]
Correct takeoff procedure for soft fi elds and rough fi elds is
quite different from that appropriate for short fi elds with fi rm,
smooth surfaces. To minimize the hazards associated with
takeoffs from soft or rough fi elds, support of the aircraft’s
weight must be transferred as rapidly as possible from the
wheels to the wings as the takeoff roll proceeds. Establishing
and maintaining a relatively high angle of attack with a nose-
high pitch attitude as early as possible achieves this.
Figure 7-12. Example of a WSC aircraft designed with a wide low-pressure front wheel for soft field operation.
Figure 7-13. Grass fields are commonly used for WSC operations but require a longer time to accelerate to takeoff speed.
Figure 7-14. Rough and soft field takeoff.
CLIMB AT VYACCELERATE IN GROUND EFFECTACCELERATE WITH NOSE UP
Rotate and lift off
as soon as possible
Stopping on a soft surface, such as mud, snow or sand,
might bog the aircraft down; therefore, it should be kept in
continuous motion with suffi cient power while lining up for
the takeoff roll.
Takeoff Roll
As the aircraft is aligned with the takeoff path, takeoff power
is applied smoothly and rapidly. As the aircraft accelerates,
the control bar is moved full forward to the front tube to
establish a positive angle of attack and to reduce the weight
supported by the nosewheel because any lift on the wing
takes load off of the landing gear.
When the aircraft is held at a nose-high attitude throughout
the takeoff run and as speed increases and lift develops, the
wings progressively relieve the wheels of more and more of
the WSC’s weight, thereby minimizing the drag caused by
surface irregularities or adhesion. If this attitude is accurately
maintained, the aircraft virtually fl ies itself off the ground,
becoming airborne at airspeed slower than a safe climb speed
because of ground effect. [Figure 7-14]
Lift-Off and Initial Climb
After becoming airborne, the nose should be lowered very
gently with the wheels clear but just above the surface to
allow the aircraft to utilize ground effect to accelerate to VY,
or VX if obstacles must be cleared. Extreme care must be
exercised immediately after the aircraft becomes airborne and
while it accelerates to avoid settling back onto the surface.
An attempt to climb prematurely or too steeply may cause the
aircraft to settle back to the surface as a result of losing the
benefi t of ground effect. An attempt to climb out of ground
effect before suffi cient climb airspeed is attained may result
in aircraft incapacity to continue climbing as the ground effect
area is traveled, even with full power for lower powered WSC
aircraft. Therefore, it is essential that the aircraft remain in
ground effect until at least VX is reached. This requires a feel
for the WSC aircraft and a very fi ne control touch in order
to avoid overcontrolling the pitch control as required control
pressures change with aircraft acceleration. Simply getting
off the ground as quickly as possible and fl ying in ground
effect is the goal.
In addition to normal takeoffs, additional common errors in
the performance of soft/rough fi eld takeoffs are:
• Attempting a takeoff with a WSC that is not equipped
with the proper tires.
• Minimum air pressure not used in tires.
• Insuffi cient control bar forward pressure during initial
takeoff roll, resulting in inadequate angle of attack.
• Poor directional control.
• Climbing too steeply after lift-off.
• Abrupt and/or excessive pitch control while attempting
to level off and accelerate after lift-off.
• Allowing the aircraft to “mush” or settle resulting in
an inadvertent touchdown after lift-off.
• Attempting to climb out of ground effect area before
attaining suffi cient climb speed.
Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure
Emergency or abnormal situations can occur during a takeoff
that requires a pilot to reject the takeoff while still on the
runway. Circumstances such as a malfunctioning powerplant,
items dislodging during takeoff, inadequate acceleration,
runway incursion, or air traffi c confl ict may be reasons for
a rejected takeoff.
Prior to takeoff, the pilot should have in mind a point along
the runway at which the aircraft should be airborne. If
that point is reached and the WSC aircraft is not airborne,
immediate action should be taken to discontinue the takeoff.
Properly planned and executed, chances are excellent the
aircraft can be stopped on the remaining runway without
using extraordinary measures, such as excessive braking
that may result in loss of directional control, damage, and/or
personal injury.
In the event a takeoff is rejected, the power should be reduced
to idle or the engine shut off and maximum braking applied
while maintaining directional control. If it is necessary to
shut down the engine due to a fi re, the fuel supply should
be shut off and the magnetos turned off. In all cases, the
manufacturer’s emergency procedure should be followed.
What characterizes all power loss or engine failure
occurrences after lift-off is urgency. In most instances,
the pilot has only a few seconds after an engine failure to
decide what course of action to take and to execute it. Unless
prepared in advance to make the proper decision, there is an
excellent chance the pilot will make a poor decision, or make
no decision at all and allow events to rule.
In the event of an engine failure on initial climb-out, the
pilot’s fi rst responsibility is to maintain aircraft control. At
a climb pitch attitude without power, the WSC is at or near
a stalling angle of attack. It is essential the pilot immediately
lower the pitch attitude by pulling the control bar back
to the chest immediately to prevent a stall. As discussed
earlier in the climb section, a preventative measure is to
climb to a safe altitude, 200 feet was used as an example,
at least the minimum safe climb speed as recommended by
the manufacturer to lower pitch angle as a safety measure
for this situation to minimize a high pitch angle close to the
ground. The pilot should establish a controlled glide toward
a plausible landing area (preferably straight ahead on the
remaining runway).
Noise Abatement
Aircraft noise problems have become a major concern at many
airports throughout the country. Many local communities
have pressured airports into developing specifi c operational
procedures that help limit aircraft noise while operating
over nearby areas. For years now, the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), airport managers, aircraft operators,
pilots, and special interest groups have been working together
to minimize aircraft noise for nearby sensitive areas. As a
result, noise abatement procedures have been developed for
many of these airports that include standardized profi les and
procedures to achieve these lower noise goals.
Airports that have noise abatement procedures provide
information to pilots, operators, air carriers, air traffic
facilities, and other special groups that are applicable to
their airport. These procedures are available to the aviation
community by various means. Most of this information
comes from the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD), local and
regional publications, printed handouts, operator bulletin
boards, safety briefi ngs, and local air traffi c facilities.
At airports that use noise abatement procedures, reminder
signs may be installed at the taxiway hold positions for
applicable runways. These are to remind pilots to use and
comply with noise abatement procedures on departure. Pilots
who are not familiar with these procedures should ask the
tower or air traffi c facility for the recommended procedures.
In any case, pilots should be considerate of the surrounding
community while operating their aircraft to and from such
an airport. This includes operating as quietly, yet safely as
possible.
Chapter Summary
Normal Takeoff is straight down runway centerline with
rotation at proper airspeed and initial climb at safe airspeed
and moderate pitch angle to account for engine failure.
Once to safe maneuvering altitude en route climb speed
is maintained. Cross wind takeoffs are similar to normal
takeoffs except wing must be held straight to ground path
during acceleration and greater speed is obtained before
rotation. Short fi eld takeoffs are performed by ensuring that
suffi cient runway is available for takeoff and utilizing best-
angle-of-climb speed (VX) until obstacle is cleared. Rough
or soft fi eld takeoffs are performed by keeping the weight
off the nosewheel, and lifting off into the ground effect to
gain speed as soon as possible.
Precautions should always be taken by climbing at faster
airspeeds and lower pitch angles in case of an engine failure/
rejected landing.