Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is the part of the memory system that receives initial stimuli from the environment and processes them according to
the individual’s preconceived concept of what is important. Other factors can influence the reception of information by sensory
memory. For example, if the input is dramatic and impacts more than one of the five senses, that information is more likely to make
an impression. The sensory memory processes stimuli from the environment within seconds, discards what is considered extraneous,
and processes what is determined by the individual to be relevant. This is a selective process where the sensory register is set to
recognize certain stimuli and immediately transmit them to the STM for action. The process is called precoding. An example of
sensory precoding is recognition of a fire alarm. No matter what is happening at the time, when the sensory register detects a fire
alarm, the working memory is immediately made aware of the alarm and preset responses begin to take place. Sensory memory is
capable of retaining information for only a very short period of time and within seconds the relevant information is passed to the
STM.
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Short-term memory is the part of the memory system where information is stored for roughly 30 seconds, after which it may rapidly
fade or be consolidated into long- term memory, depending on the individual’s priorities. Several common steps help retention in
STM. These include rehearsal or repetition of the information and sorting or categorization into systematic chunks. The sorti ng
process is usually called coding or chunking. A key limitation of STM is that it takes 5 –10 seconds to properly code information and
if the coding process is interrupted, that information is easily lost since it is stored for only 30 seconds. The goal of the STM is to put
the information to immediate use.
STM is not only time-limited, it also has limited capacity, usually about seven bits or chunks of information. A seven-digit
telephone number is an example. As indicated, the time limitation may be overcome by rehearsal. This means learning the
information by a rote memorization process. Of course, rote memorization is subject to imperfections in both the duration of recall
and in its accuracy. The coding process is more useful in a learning situation. In addition, the coding process may involve recoding to
adjust the information to individual experiences. This is when actual learning begins to take place. Therefore, recoding may be
described as a process of relating incoming information to concepts or knowledge already in memory.
Brain research has led to the conclusion that STM resembles the control tower of a major airport and is responsible for sche duling
and coordinating all incoming and outgoing flights. STM has three basic operations: iconic memory, acoustic memory, and worki ng
memory. Iconic memory is the brief sensory memory of visual images. Acoustic memory is the encoded memory of a brief sound
memory or the ability to hold sounds in STM. Of the two, acoustic memory can be held longer than iconic memory. Working memory
is an active process to keep information until it is put to use (think of a phone number repeated until used). It is useful in remembering
a spoken sentence or a string of digits.
Also called “scratch-pad” memory, working memory is of short duration and has limited capacity. It simultaneously stores and
manipulates information. The goal of the working memory is not really to move the information from STM to LTM, but merely put
the information to immediate use.
STM retention makes information available long enough for it to be rehearsed. For example, if the learner repeats the number to
himself, it can be transferred to some sort of longer term storage. To retain information for extended periods of time, it n eeds to be
transferred from STM to LTM. This process involves encoding or consolidation of information into LTM where it can then be
retrieved.
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
LTM is relatively permanent storage of unlimited information, and it is possible for memories in LTM to remain there for a lifetime.
What is stored in LTM affects a person’s perceptions of the world and affects what information in the environment is noticed.
Information that passes from STM to LTM typically has some significance attached to it. For example, imagine how difficult it would
be for a pilot to forget the first day he or she soloed. This is a significant day in any pilot’s training, so when the information was
processed, significance was attached to it, the information was deemed important, and it was transferred into LTM.
There appear to be other reasons information is transferred to LTM because the average human brain stores numerous insignificant
facts. One explanation is repetition; people tend to remember things the more they are rehearsed. Information also ends up in LTM
because it is somehow attached to something significant. A person may remember the color of the clothing of the recipient of a
wedding proposal. The color of the clothing plays no important role, but is attached to the memory of the experience.
For the stored information to be useful, some special effort was expended during the encoding or consolidation of information in
STM. The encoding should provide meaning and connections between old and new information. If initial encoding is not properly
accomplished, recall is distorted and it may be impossible. The more effective the encoding process, the easier the recall. However, it
should be noted that the LTM is a reconstruction, not a pure recall of information or events. It is also subject to limitations, such as
time, biases, and, in many cases, personal inaccuracies. This is one reason why two people who view the same event often have
totally different recollections. Memory also applies to psychomotor skills. For example, with practice, a tennis player may be able to
serve a tennis ball at a high rate of speed and with accuracy. This may be accomplished with very little thought. For a pilot, the ability
to instinctively perform certain maneuvers or tasks that require manual dexterity and precision, provides obvious benefits. For
example, it allows the pilot more time to concentrate on other essential duties such as navigation, communications with ATC
facilities, and visual scanning for other aircraft.
Information in LTM is stored in interrelated networks of schemas which are the cognitive frameworks that help people organize and
interpret information. Schemas guide recognition and understanding of new information by providing expectations about what should
occur. Since LTM is organized into schemas, instructors should consciously look for ways to make training relevant and meaningful
enough for the learner to transfer new information to LTM. This can be accomplished by activating existing schemas before
presenting new information. For example, a brief review of the previous lesson via discussion, video, questions, etc.
Remembering What Has Been Learned
The moment people learn something new and add it to their repertoire of knowledge and skill, they are confronted with a second task:
the task of remembering it. Remembering is a challenge because of a natural feature of human memory-forgetting. Forgetting is such
an apparent part of human memory that it is often the first thing that people think of when they bring up the topic of memory.
The following section discusses how remembering and forgetting happens in predictable ways that help keep human memories tune d
to the demands of everyday life. Memories help people keep fresh precisely those things needed next, and let slip those things that
have outlived their usefulness. Understanding the factors that determine what is remembered and what is forgotten helps instructor
and learner get the most from memory.
How Usage Affects Memory
The ability to retrieve knowledge or skills from memory is primarily related to two things: (1) how often that knowledge has been
used in the past; and (2) how recently the knowledge has been used. These two factors are called frequency and recency of use .
Frequency and recency can be present individually or in combination.
Frequency and recency —knowledge that enjoys both frequency and recency is likely to be retrieved easily and quickly. This is
knowledge much used in the past that continues to be used in the present. This is the ideal situation for knowledge and skills that need
to be used.
Frequency only—knowledge that has been used much in the past but that has not been used recently is vulnerable to being forgotten.
This type of knowledge is likely to be retrieved slowly or not at all. To retrieve this knowledge and skill, some recent rehearsal or
practice needs to be added in order to refresh the memory.
Recency only—knowledge that has been recently used but has not been used in the past is knowledge that has been recently acquired.
This type of knowledge is particularly vulnerable to being forgotten since there is little to distinguish it from “throw away ”
knowledge, such as an hourly weather broadcast. To remember this knowledge requires a program of regular rehearsal to build up its
frequency.
Forgetting
Forgetting, which refers to loss of a memory, typically involves a failure in memory retrieval. The failure may be due to the decay or
overwriting of information which has been temporarily stored in STM, but generally forgetting refers to loss of information from
LTM. The information is not lost, per se, it is somewhere in the person’s LTM, but he or she is not able to retrieve and remember it.
Why do people forget? Why don’t we remember everything? Do we need to remember everything? Most of the information people
are exposed to each day has a short period of usefulness with little need to retain it. For example, why would anyone need to
remember the details of an hourly weather broadcast ten years ago?
Thus, forgetting knowledge is not always a bad thing. For example, forgetting old information keeps new information up to date.
Many theories on why people forget have been offered to explain the phenomenon, among them retrieval failure, fading, interference,
and repression or suppression.
Retrieval Failure
Retrieval failure is simply the inability to retrieve information, that tip- of-the-tongue phenomenon when a person knows the meaning
of a word, or the answer to a question, but cannot retrieve it. It is also caused by the fact that sometimes people simply do not encode
information well and the information never makes it to LTM or is lost before it can attach itself to the LTM. This is sometimes
referred to as failure to store.
Fading
The theory of fading or decay suggests that a person forgets information that is not used for an extended period of time, that it fades
away or decays. It had been suggested that humans are physiologically preprogrammed to eventually erase data that no longer appears
pertinent.
On the other hand, experimental studies show that a hypnotized person can describe specific details of an event, which normally is
beyond recall. Apparently the memory is there, locked in the recesses of the mind. The difficulty is summoning the memory to
consciousness or retrieving the link that leads to it.
Interference
Interference theory suggests that people forget something because a certain experience has overshadowed it, or that the learning of
similar things has intervened. This theory might explain how the range of experiences after graduation from school causes a person to
forget or to lose knowledge. In other words, new events displace many things that had been learned. From experiments, at least two
conclusions about interference may be drawn. First, similar material seems to interfere with memory more than dissimilar material;
and second, material not well learned suffers most from interference.
Repression or Suppression
Freudian psychology advances the view that some forgetting is caused by repression or suppression. In repression or suppression, a
memory is pushed out of reach because the individual does not want to remember the feelings associated with it. Repression is an
unconscious form of forgetting while suppression is a conscious form.
Forgetting information does not mean it is gone forever. Sometimes it is still there, just inaccessible.
Retention of Learning
Each of the theories of forgetting implies that when a person forgets something, it is not actually lost. Rather, it is simply unavailable
for recall. The instructor’s problem is how to make certain that the learner’s learning is readily available for recall. The following
suggestions can help.
Teach thoroughly and with meaning. Material thoroughly learned is highly resistant to forgetting. This is suggested by experimental
studies and it also was pointed out in the sections on skill learning. Meaningful learning builds patterns of relationships in the
learner’s consciousness, which is one reason to conduct SBT. In contrast, rote learning is superficial and is not easily retained.
Meaningful learning goes deep because it involves principles and concepts anchored in the learner’s own experiences. The following
discussion emphasizes five principles, which are generally accepted as having a direct application to remembering.
Praise Stimulates Remembering
Responses that give a pleasurable return tend to be repeated. Absence of praise or recognition tends to discourage, and any form of
negativism in the acceptance of a response tends to make its recall less likely.
Recall Is Promoted by Association
As discussed earlier, each bit of information or action, which is associated with something to be learned, tends to facilitate its later
recall by the learner. Unique or disassociated facts tend to be forgotten unless they are of special interest or application.
Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention
People learn and remember only what they wish to know. Without motivation there is little chance for recall. The most effective
motivation is based on positive or rewarding objectives.
Learning with All Senses Is Most Effective
Although people generally receive what is learned through the eyes and ears, other senses also contribute to most perceptions. When
several senses respond together, a fuller understanding and greater chance of recall is achieved.
Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall
Each repetition gives the learner an opportunity to gain a clearer and more accurate perception of the subject to be learned, but mere
repetition does not guarantee retention. Practice provides an opportunity for learning, but does not cause it. Further, some research
indicates that three or four repetitions provide the maximum effect, after which the rate of learning and probability of retention fall off
rapidly.
Along with these five principles, there is a considerable amount of additional literature on retention of learning during a typical
academic lesson. After the first 10 –15 minutes, the rate of retention drops significantly until about the last 5 –10 minutes when
learners wake up again. Learners passively listening to a lecture have roughly a five percent retention rate over a 24-hour period, but
individuals actively engaged in the learning process have a much higher retention. This clearly reiterates the point that active learning
is superior to just listening.
Mnemonics
A mnemonic uses a pattern of letters, ideas, visual images, or associations to assist in remembering information. It is a memory
enhancing strategy that involves teaching learners to link new information to information they already know. Its chief value lies in
helping learners recall information that needs to be recalled in a particular order by encoding difficult- to-remember information in a
way that makes it easier to remember. Research shows that providing learners with memorization techniques improves their ability to
recall information. Mnemonics include but are not limited to acronyms, acrostics, rhymes, or chaining.
Acronyms form a word from the first letters of other words. For example, “AIM” is the acronym for Aeronautical Information
Manual.
An acrostic is a poem, word puzzle, or other composition in which the first letter of each line or word is a cue to the idea the learner
wishes to remember. For example, Every Good Boy Does Fine is used to remember the order of the G-clef notes in music. An
example of a useful aviation acrostic is the memory aid for one of the magnetic compass errors. The letters “ANDS” indicate:
⦁ Accelerate
⦁ North
⦁ Decelerate
⦁ South
Rhymes and melody are another way to remember information. Rhymes such as “In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue.” Most
children learn the alphabet using a familiar melody “Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star.” A well-known mnemonic rhyme for remembering
the days of the month is the familiar, “30 days hath September, April, June, and November...”
Chaining is used for ordered or unordered lists and consists of creating a story in which each word or idea that needs to be
remembered cues the next idea.
Variations of the encoding process are practically endless. Developing a logical strategy for encoding information is a significant step
in the learning process.
Transfer of Learning
Transfer of learning is broadly defined as the ability to apply knowledge or procedures learned in one context to new contexts.
Learning occurs more quickly and he or she develops a deeper understanding of the task if he or she brings some knowledge or skills
from previous learning. A positive transfer of learning occurs when the individual practices under a variety of conditions,
underscoring again the value of SBT.
A distinction is commonly made between near and far transfer. Near transfer consists of transfer from initial learning that is situated
in a given setting to ones that are closely related. Far transfer refers both to the ability to use what was learned in one setting to a
different one as well as the ability to solve novel problems that share a common structure with the knowledge initially acquired. There
is a third way to talk about transfer called generativity. In this context it means learners have the ability on their own to come up with
novel solutions.
During a learning experience, previous knowledge usually aids the learner, but sometimes interferes with the current task. Consider
the learning of two skills. If the learning of skill A helps to learn skill B, positive transfer occurs. If learning skill A hinders the
learning of skill B, negative transfer occurs. For example, the practice of slow flight (skill A) helps Beverly learn short-field landings
(skill B). However, practice in making a landing approach in an airplane (skill A) may hinder learning to make an approach in a
helicopter (skill B). It should be noted that the learning of skill B might affect the retention or proficiency of skill A, either positively
or negatively. While these processes may help substantiate the interference theory of forgetting, they are still concerned with the
transfer of learning.
It is clear that some degree of transfer is involved in all learning. This is true because, except for certain inherent responses, all new
learning is based upon previous experience. People interpret new things in terms of what they already know.
Many aspects of teaching profit by this type of transfer, perhaps explaining why learners of apparently equal ability have differing
success in certain areas. Negative transfer may hinder the learning of some; positive transfer may help others. This points to a need to
know the learner’s past experience and current knowledge. In lesson and syllabus development, instructors can plan for transfer by
organizing course materials and individual lesson materials in a meaningful sequence. Each phase should help the learner understand
what is to follow.
The cause of transfer and exactly how it occurs is difficult to determine, but no one disputes the fact that transfer occurs. For the
instructor, the significance of transference lies in the fact that the learners can be helped to achieve it. The following suggestions are
representative of what educational psychologists believe should be done:
⦁ Plan for transfer as a primary objective. As in all areas of teaching, the chance for success is increased if
the instructor deliberately plans to achieve it.
⦁ Ensure that the learners understand that information can be applied to other situations. Prepare them to
seek other applications.
⦁ Maintain high-order learning standards. Overlearning may be appropriate. The more thoroughly
th
e learners understand the material, the more likely they are to see its relationship to new situations.
⦁ Avoid unnecessary rote learning, since it does not foster transfer.
⦁ Provide meaningful learning experiences that build confidence in their ability to transfer knowledge. This
uggests activities that challenge them to exercise their imagination and ingenuity in applying their
knowledge and skills.
⦁ Use instructional material that helps form valid concepts and generalizations. Use materials that make
elationships clear.
Habit Formation
The formation of correct habit patterns from the beginning of any learning process is essential to further learning and for correct
performance after the completion of training. Remember, primacy is one of the fundamental principles of learning. Therefore, it is the
instructor’s responsibility to insist on correct techniques and procedures from the outset of training to provide proper habit patterns. It
is much easier to foster proper habits from the beginning of training than to correct faulty ones later.
Due to the high level of knowledge and skill required in aviation for both pilots and maintenance technicians, training has
traditionally followed a building block concept. This means new learning and habit patterns are based on a solid foundation o f
experience and/or old learning. Everything from intricate cognitive processes to simple motor skills depends on what the learner
already knows and how that knowledge can be applied in the present. As knowledge and skill increase, there is an expanding base
upon which to build for the future.
How Understanding Affects Memory
The ability to remember is greatly affected by the level of understanding of what has been learned. Many studies have demonstrated a
depth-of-processing effect on memory: the more deeply humans think about what they have learned, the more likely they are able to
retrieve that knowledge later. Depth- of-processing is the natural result of the kinds of learning activities described earlier: beginning
with memorized information and then elaborating upon it, making associations, constructing explanations, all in pursuit of furthering
understanding.
The effects of depth of processing on memory are quite powerful and result from even the simplest attempts to elaborate on what has
been learned. One study asked participants to memorize sentences such as “The pilot arrived late.” Half of the participants simply
memorized the sentences as they were. The other participants were asked to develop an elaboration for the sentence such as “because
of the bad weather.”
When put to a test, participants who created elaborations were significantly better able to recall the sentences. When memories for
sentences had decayed, it seems that remembered words from the elaborations helped people recall them.
Remembering during Training
Remembering what is learned on a day- to-day basis is the first challenge learners need to meet. As learners are presented with new
knowledge each day, they should work to maintain that new knowledge plus all the knowledge they learned on previous days. Indeed,
remembering during training is a challenge that increases in magnitude each day.
The first threat to newly acquired knowledge is a lack of frequent usage in the past. To address this threat, the learner needs to engage
in regular practice of what they have learned. Learners often put off daily studying in favor of “cramming” the night before an
evaluation. These learners should be made aware that shorter and regularly spaced study sessions produce memory results that far
exceed those obtained from cramming.
A second threat to newly acquired knowledge exists if a learner lacks the degree of understanding that may assist with the recall of
that knowledge. Study practices that combine repetition of knowledge along with efforts to increase one’s understanding of the
knowledge lead to best results. The idea of reading with “study questions” in mind is one that has received much attention by memory
researchers.
Experiments have found that not only does answering study questions lead to better memory, but so does the very act of creati ng
study questions. In one experiment in which learners read a text and were then tested on their comprehension, learners who wrote
their own study questions and then discarded them unanswered exhibited better recall than learners who simply read the text.
Remembering after Training
Learners should leave the training environment with a sound understanding that a certificate is in no sense a guarantee that they will
remember anything that they have learned. It seems that no one is exempt from the process of forgetting. Continued practice of their
knowledge and skill is the only means of retaining what they learned, and practice is important after they become certificated pilots
and mechanics as it is during their training.
One study of pilots’ retention of aeronautical knowledge showed that learners’ retention of some topics was superior to that of their
own instructors. It seems that the learners’ active use and recent rehearsal of these knowledge topics in preparation for knowledge and
practical tests outweighed the effects of the more frequent (but less recent) usage on the part of the instructors. This finding nicely
demonstrates that an instructor’s knowledge is just as vulnerable to forgetting when it has not been recently practiced.
In the same study, the ability of certificated pilots to remember details about regulations was related to the number of months since
each pilot’s last flight review. This suggests that pilots may take steps to sharpen their knowledge before a flight review and allow it
to decay between reviews. Even skills that become automatic during training may not remain automatic after a period of disuse.
Sources of Knowledge
Aviation learners obtain knowledge from a variety of sources while training to be pilots or mechanics. The aviation instructor is the
learner’s primary source of knowledge, but an instructor also recommends other sources of knowledge. These include books,
photographs, videos, diagrams and charts, and other instructional materials. These sources are important for the learner because they
allo
w information to be archived and easily transferred from one person to another. They also allow the reader to self-pace the
acquisition of information and permit the reader to pause, think, formulate, and reformulate his or her understanding.
The instructor also encourages the learner to gain experience in the real- world of aviation. These experiences enhance the learner’s
incidental learning: observation of other pilots or mechanics, thinking about what has been learned, formulation of schemas, and
ability to make correlations about what has been learned. Interactive computer-based instruction programs, another excellent source
of knowledge, often go hand- in-hand with the flight training syllabus, assuring academics are delivered just- in-time to complement
lessons.
Summary of Instructor Actions
To help learners remember what they have learned, the instructor should:
⦁ Discuss the difference between short-term memory and long-term memory.
⦁ Explain the effect of frequent and recent usage of knowledge on remembering and forgetting.
⦁ Explain the effect of depth of understanding on remembering and forgetting.
⦁ Encourage learner use of mnemonic devices while studying.
⦁ Explain th e benefits of studying at regularly spaced intervals, and the disadvantages of “cramming.”
Chapter Summary
Learning theory has caused instruction to move from basic skills and pure facts to linking new information with prior knowledge,
from relying on a single authority to recognizing multiple sources of knowledge, and from novice-like to expert-like problem-solving.
While educational theories facilitate learning, no one learning theory is good for all learning situations and all learners. Instruction in
aviation should utilize a combination of learning theories.