Approaches and Landings
Chapter 11
Introduction
Approaches and landings are critical maneuvers and require
the skills built from basic fl ight maneuvers, ground reference
maneuvers, and airport traffi c patterns. A proper approach is
required for a proper roundout and touchdown. With the large
number of environmental variables the pilot must consider,
in addition to the skill to judge aircraft speed, descent rate,
and distance above the ground, landing is normally the last
basic maneuver the student learns before solo.
Approaches and landings will be fi rst discussed with the
fundamentals of a normal approach and landing in calm
winds on a large hard-surfaced runway. This will provide the
basis for specifi c power-on, crosswind, and steep approach
maneuvers, as well as other types of approaches and landings
that WSC commonly encounter.
Normal (Calm Wind) Approaches and
Landings
A normal or regular approach and landing involves the use
of procedures for what is considered a simple situation. It
provides the minimum number of variables for the student
pilot to learn during the fi rst landings; that is, when engine
power is at idle, wind is light, and the fi nal approach is
made directly into the wind, the fi nal approach path has no
obstacles, and the landing surface is fi rm and of ample length
to bring the aircraft gradually to a stop. This includes normal
runways used for WSC that are asphalt, concrete, solid dirt,
gravel or short grass. The selected landing point should be
beyond the runway’s approach threshold but within the fi rst
one-third portion of the runway.
The factors involved and the procedures described for the
normal approach and landing also have applications to
the other-than-normal approaches and landings which are
discussed later in this chapter. Therefore, the principles of
simple (or normal) operations are explained fi rst and must be
understood before proceeding to more complex operations.
To assist the pilot in understanding the factors that infl uence
judgment and procedures, the last part of the approach pattern
and the actual landing is divided into fi ve phases:
• Base leg
• Final approach
• Roundout
• Touchdown
• After-landing roll
Remember that the manufacturer’s recommended procedures,
including aircraft confi guration, airspeeds, power, and other
information relevant to approaches and landings in a specifi c
make and model aircraft are contained in the Aircraft Flight
Manual (AFM) and/or Pilot’s Operating Handbook (POH)
for that aircraft. If any of the information in this chapter
differs from the aircraft manufacturer’s recommendations
as contained in the AFM/POH, the aircraft manufacturer’s
recommendations take precedence.
Throttle Use
As discussed in Chapter 2, Aerodynamics, the WSC aircraft
has a good glide ratio, and normal landings can easily be
done with the power at idle. It is a good practice to master
the landings with the throttle at idle so that the glide angle,
speeds, and descent rates become habit and part of a normal
routine. This is helpful so that, if there is an engine failure,
the pilot is accustomed to landing with minimum power and
is able to spot land the WSC aircraft for emergency conditions
at or beyond a specifi ed point. As a general practice for
normal landings in calm conditions or a slight headwind,
the throttle should be brought back to idle at the start of the
base leg for landings.
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR), section
91.119, Minimum Safe Altitudes: General, is an important
safety precaution and states: “Except when necessary
for takeoff or landing, no person may operate an aircraft
anywhere below... an altitude allowing, if a power unit fails,
an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or
property on the surface.” This allows long fi nal approaches
“with power when necessary,” but overall, it is important to
be no lower than an altitude from which you can glide to a safe
landing area. For the purposes of this approach-and-landing
discussion, it is assumed that there are no safe landing areas
other than the runway.
It should be noted that the power is above idle for some
landing situations, such as:
• Students fi rst learning to land; a slower rate of descent
is the result of higher power settings. In this case, the
landings would be done with a target farther down the
runway so a safe landing could always be made with
engine failure.
• Shallower descent angle if directed by air traffi c control
(ATC), or a longer fi nal approach is required.
• High winds and/or turbulent conditions requiring a
higher energy level.
For landings where throttle is required, the foot throttle is
typically used so the hands can stay on the control bar while
approaching the ground for this critical phase of fl ight.
However, the hand/cruise throttle may be set above idle for
specifi c situations as required by the pilot. Higher power
settings for approaches and landings are discussed later in
this chapter.
Base Leg
The placement of the base leg is one of the more important
judgments made by the pilot in any landing approach.
[Figure 11-1] The pilot must accurately judge the altitude
and distance from which the descent results in landing at
the desired point.
The base leg should be started at a point where the power
can be brought back to idle and the WSC aircraft can glide to
the landing spot at the approach speed recommended by the
manufacturer. The intended landing point should not be at the
end of the runway on a threshold or numbers, but beyond at
the landing lines. [Figure 11-2] This provides some margin
if the landing is shorter than anticipated. For smaller runways
that do not have these markings, establish an appropriate
Aiming Point for Landings
Figure 11-2. Typical landing position on runway.
Figure 11-1. Base leg and final approach.
landing point beyond the start of the runway, allowing plenty
of room for the after-landing roll. At much larger airports, the
landing can be done farther down the runway or at a location
where the pilot can taxi off the runway and not delay other
air traffi c behind the aircraft.
After turning onto the base leg, the pilot should continue
the descent with reduced power and approach airspeed as
recommended by the manufacturer. As discussed in Chapter
7, Takeoff and Departure, this speed is at least 1.3 times the
stall speed. Landing trim should be adjusted according to
manufacturer specifi cations (if equipped).
Drift correction should be established and maintained to follow
a ground track perpendicular to the extension of the centerline
of the runway on which the landing is to be made. Since the
fi nal approach and landing are normally made into the wind,
there may be a crosswind during the base leg. The aircraft must
be angled suffi ciently into the wind to prevent drifting farther
away from the intended landing point.
The base leg should be continued to the point where a
medium- to shallow-banked turn aligns the aircraft’s path
directly with the centerline of the landing runway. This
descending turn should be completed at a safe altitude that is
dependent upon the height of the terrain and any obstructions
along the ground track. The turn to the fi nal approach should
also be suffi ciently above the airport elevation to permit a
Figure 11-4. Turning from base onto final.
Runway
Figure 11-3. On base preparing to turn onto final.
Figure 11-5. Lining up on the runway centerline and maintaining
position.
fi nal approach long enough for the pilot to accurately estimate
the resultant point of touchdown, while maintaining the
proper approach airspeed. This requires careful planning
for the starting point and radius of the turn. [Figure 11-3]
Normally, it is recommended that the angle of bank not
exceed a medium bank because the steeper the angle of bank,
the higher the airspeed at which the aircraft stalls. Since the
base-to-fi nal turn is made at a relatively low altitude, it is
important that a stall not occur at this point. If an extremely
steep bank is needed to prevent overshooting the proper fi nal
approach path, it is advisable to discontinue the approach, go
around, and plan to start the turn earlier on the next approach
rather than risk a hazardous situation.
Final Approach
After the base-to-final approach turn is completed, the
aircraft should be aligned directly in the extension of the
centerline of the runway. The objective of a good fi nal
approach is to approach the runway with suffi cient energy
(manufacturer’s recommended airspeed) to land at or
beyond some predetermined point. The landing area should
provide suffi cient runway behind for variations in approach
conditions and runway ahead to allow either a full stop or a
go-around if needed.
If there is a crosswind of any kind, the aircraft should be
pointed into the wind slightly (see the Crosswind Approaches
and Landings section). Focus should be to keep the ground
track aligned with the centerline of the runway or landing
surface, so that drift (if any) is recognized immediately. On
a normal approach, with no crosswind drift, the longitudinal
axis should be kept aligned with the runway centerline
throughout the approach and landing.
After aligning the aircraft with the runway centerline, speed
is adjusted as required for the desired rate of descent. Slight
increases in power, if lower than expected, may be necessary
to maintain the descent angle at the desired approach
airspeed.
The descent angle should be controlled throughout the
approach so that the aircraft lands in the center of the runway
at the aiming point, as discussed earlier. The descent angle is
affected by all four fundamental forces that act on an aircraft
(lift, drag, thrust, and weight). If all the forces are constant,
the descent angle is constant in calm air. The pilot can control
these forces by adjusting the airspeed and power. The fi nal
approach sequence is shown in Figures 11-4 through 11-8.
In a descent for fi nal approach, if the WSC is slowed with
an angle of attack that is too high and without an increase
of power, the aircraft settles very rapidly and touches down
short of the desired area. For this reason, the pilot should
never try to stretch a glide by applying forward control bar
pressure alone to reach the desired landing area. Because this
brings the speed below the minimum drag speed, the gliding
distance decreases if power is not added simultaneously.
Figure 11-6. Coming to the runway and increasing speed slightly
within 50 feet of the ground.
Figure 11-7. Maintaining speed and position over the middle of
the runway.
Figure 11-8. Starting the roundout by increasing angle of attack
(AOA) slightly at about 10 to 15 feet above the runway.
Additionally, this is a lower energy approach and may be
slower than the manufacturer’s safe approach speed. The
proper angle of descent to the runway must be maintained at
the minimum speed recommended by the manufacturer, with
a fl atter descent angle obtained with increases in power as
required. Steeper descent angles are obtained with headwinds
or the pilot increasing speed/decreasing the angle of attack,
both of which are covered later in this chapter.
Estimating Height and Movement
During the fi nal approach, roundout, and touchdown, vision is
of prime importance. To provide a wide scope of vision and
to foster good judgment of height and movement, the pilot’s
head should assume a natural, straight-ahead position. The
pilot’s visual focus should not be fi xed on any one side or
any one spot ahead of the aircraft. The pilot should maintain
a deliberate awareness of the runway centerline (if available)
or distance from either side of the runway within his or her
peripheral fi eld of vision.
Accurate estimation of distance is, besides being a matter of
practice, dependent upon how clearly objects are seen; vision
must be focused properly so that important objects stand out
as clearly as possible. Speed blurs objects at close range. For
example, one can note this effect in an automobile moving
at high speed. Nearby objects seem to merge together in a
blur, while objects farther away stand out clearly. The driver
subconsciously focuses the eyes suffi ciently far ahead of the
automobile to see objects distinctly.
The distance at which the pilot’s vision is focused should be
proportionate to the speed at which the aircraft is traveling
over the ground. Thus, as speed is reduced during the
roundout, the focus distance ahead of the aircraft should be
decreased accordingly.
If the pilot attempts to focus on a reference that is too close
or looks directly down, the reference is blurred, and the
reaction is either too abrupt or too late. In this case, the
pilot’s tendency is to overcontrol, round out high, and make a
stalled, drop-in landing. When the pilot focuses too far ahead,
accuracy in judging the closeness of the ground is lost and
the consequent reaction is too slow since there is no apparent
necessity for action. This results in the aircraft fl ying into the
ground nose fi rst without a proper roundout.
The best way to recognize and become accustomed to heights
and speeds for a particular WSC aircraft is to perform low
passes over the runway, as discussed earlier, with energy
management. Perform a normal approach fi rst, then a high-
energy pass at a higher speed, and then medium-energy
passes at lower speeds. These exercises are performed fi rst
in calm winds at a height, as an example, at which the wheels
are 10 feet above the runway, then lowering to just inches
above the runway as the pilot’s skills build. The objective
is to become profi cient at fl ying straight down the runway
centerline at a constant altitude. This exercise provides the
Touchdown
Approach Speed
Start moving control
bar forward to
decrease speed
Start to Increase
Angle of Attack
Continue to move
control bar forward
to decrease speed
Continue to Increase
Angle of Attack
Continue to move
control bar forward
to decrease speed
Continue to Increase
Angle of Attack
Continue to move
control bar forward
to decrease speed
until touchdown
Continue to Increase
Angle of Attack
Start roundout about 15 feet above ground
1 inch
Figure 11-9. Changing angle of attack during roundout by slowly and continuously pushing forward on the control bar until
touchdown.
opportunity to determine height and speed over the runway
before any landings are performed. These should generally
be performed in mild conditions. Higher energy and greater
heights above the runway are required in windier and bumpier
conditions.
Roundout ( Flare)
The roundout is a slow, smooth transition from a normal
approach speed to a landing attitude, gradually rounding out
the fl ightpath to one that is parallel with, and within a very
few inches above, the runway. When the aircraft, in a normal
descent, approaches within what appears to be 10 to 15 feet
above the ground, the roundout or fl are should be started and
be a continuous process slowing until the aircraft touches
down on the ground.
It should be noted that the terms “roundout” and “fl are” are
defi ned and used interchangeably throughout the aviation
industry for slowing the aircraft during fi nal approach and
touching down. The term “roundout” is used in this handbook
since it provides a better description for the WSC landing
process and WSC students are more successful learning
landings using the term roundout instead of fl are.
As the aircraft reaches a height where the back wheels are one
to two inches above the ground, the roundout is continued
by gradually pushing the control bar forward as required to
maintain one to two inches above the runway as the WSC
aircraft slows. [Figure 11-9] This causes the aircraft’s
nosewheel to gradually rise to the desired landing attitude.
The AOA should be increased at a rate that allows the aircraft
to continue fl ying just above the runway as forward speed
decreases until the control bar is full forward and the back
wheels settle onto the runway.
During the roundout, the airspeed is decreased to touchdown
speed while the lift is controlled so the aircraft settles gently
onto the landing surface. The roundout should be executed
at a rate at which the proper landing attitude and the proper
touchdown airspeed are attained simultaneously just as the
wheels contact the landing surface.
The rate at which the roundout is executed depends on the
aircraft’s height above the ground, the rate of descent, and
the airspeed. A roundout started excessively high must be
executed more slowly than one from a lower height to allow
the aircraft to descend to the ground while the proper landing
attitude is being established. The rate of rounding out must
also be proportionate to the rate of closure with the ground.
When the aircraft appears to be descending very slowly, the
increase in pitch attitude (slowing of the WSC) must be made
at a correspondingly low rate.
Visual cues are important in roundout at the proper altitude and
maintaining the wheels a few inches above the runway until
eventual touchdown. Roundout cues are dependent primarily
on the angle at which the pilot’s central vision intersects the
ground (or runway) ahead and slightly to the side. Proper
depth perception is a factor in a successful roundout, but the
visual cues used most are those related to changes in runway or
terrain perspective and to changes in the size of familiar objects
near the landing area such as fences, bushes, trees, hangars,
and even sod or runway texture. The pilot should direct central
vision at a shallow downward angle of 10° to 15° toward the
runway as the roundout is initiated. [Figure 11-10]
Maintaining the same viewing angle causes the point of
visual interception with the runway to move progressively
rearward toward the pilot as the aircraft loses altitude. This is
an important visual cue in assessing the rate of altitude loss.
10° to 15°
Figure 11-10. To obtain necessary visual cues, the pilot should look toward the runway at a shallow angle.
Figure 11-11. Maintaining speed from final approach in the center
of the runway at about 20 feet above the runway.
Figure 11-12. Starting the roundout at about 10 to 15 feet above
the runway surface.
Conversely, forward movement of the visual interception
point indicates an increase in altitude and would mean
that the pitch angle was increased too rapidly resulting in
an over roundout. The following are also used to judge
when the wheels are just a few inches above the runway:
location of the visual interception point in conjunction with
assessment of fl ow velocity of nearby off-runway terrain,
and the similarity in appearance of height above the runway
ahead of the aircraft to the way it looked when the aircraft
was taxied prior to takeoff.
A common error during the roundout is rounding out too much
and too fast. This error can easily be avoided by gradually
increasing the AOA with a controlled descent until the wheels
are one inch above the surface and never climbing during a
roundout with a gradual and controlled roundout.
Touchdown
After a controlled roundout, the touchdown is the gentle
settling of the aircraft onto the landing surface. For calm
air conditions, the roundout can be made with the engine
idling, and touchdown can be made at minimum controllable
airspeed so that the aircraft touches down on the main gear
at the approximate stalling speed. As the aircraft settles, the
proper landing attitude is attained by application of whatever
control bar forward pressure is necessary. In calm wind
conditions, the goal is to round out smoothly and have the
control bar touch the front tube as the back wheels touch the
ground. [Figures 11-11 through 11-14] Once the rear wheel
settles to the surface, the nosewheel settles to the ground. The
control bar should be pulled all the way back to eliminate
the possibility of lifting off the ground because of a wind
gust. Pulling the nose down completely can also be used for
aerodynamic braking if needed.
After-Landing Roll
The landing process must never be considered complete
until the aircraft decelerates to normal taxi speed during the
landing roll or has been brought to a complete stop when clear
of the landing area. Many accidents have occurred as a result
of pilots abandoning their vigilance and positive control after
getting the aircraft on the ground.
Figure 11-13. Continuing the roundout as speed bleeds off and the
WSC back wheels are inches above the runway.
Figure 11-15. WSC aircraft follows the taxi line to exit the runway
while slowing the aircraft and maintaining control of the wing.
Figure 11-14. Completing the roundout with the control bar full
forward and the back wheels settling to the runway.
The pilot must make only slight turns to maintain direction
until the WSC has slowed to taxiing speed. An abrupt turn
at high speed could possibly lift a rear wheel, roll the WSC
over, or force the wingtip to the ground. The WSC must slow
to taxing speed before before any sharp turn can be made to
exit the runway.
The brakes of an aircraft serve the same primary purpose as
the brakes of an automobile—to reduce speed on the ground.
Maximum brake effectiveness is just short of the skid point.
If the brakes are applied so hard that skidding takes place,
braking becomes ineffective. Skidding can be stopped by
releasing the brake pressure. Also, braking effectiveness is
not enhanced by alternately applying and reapplying brake
pressure. The brakes should be applied fi rmly and smoothly
as necessary.
WSC aircraft have nosewheel or rear wheel braking systems.
For nosewheel systems, if braking is required right away, the
nose should be lowered so the nosewheel touches the ground
and the brakes can be applied. The nose should be lowered
for any aerodynamic braking at the higher speeds.
Lowering the nose also provides greater force on the front
wheel for superior braking effectiveness. Any skidding of the
front wheel with braking causes the loss of directional control
of the WSC aircraft and the skidding must be stopped by
letting up on the brake. Skidding can be the greatest problem
operating on slick surfaces such as wet grass. Rear wheel
braking systems are heavier and more complex, but provide
better braking force because there are two wheels instead of
one and there is more weight on the rear wheels. Braking
effectiveness should be evaluated by the pilot for each type
of runway being used. If the available runway permits, the
speed of the aircraft should be allowed to dissipate in a normal
manner with minimum use of brakes. [Figure 11-15]
The control bar serves the same purpose on the ground as
in the air—it changes the lift and drag components of the
wings. During the after-landing roll, the control bar should
be used to keep the wings level in much the same way it is
used in fl ight. If a wing starts to rise, roll control should be
applied to lower it. Procedures for crosswind conditions are
explained further in the Crosswind Approach and Landing
section of this chapter.
Effect of Headwinds During Final
Approach
A headwind plays a prominent role in the gliding distance
over the ground. Strong headwinds decrease the glide as
shown in the comparison in Figure 11-16A with no wind
normal glide versus Figure 11-16B in headwind with steeper
glide. To account for a steeper glide in a headwind, the base
leg must be positioned closer to the approach end of the
runway than would be required with a light wind. Therefore,