the ground track in the center of the runway and evaluate if
the landing should be completed, a go-around performed,
or a different landing location selected with more favorable
wind conditions.
Effects and Hazards of High Crosswinds for
Approaches and Landings
Figure 11-24 illustrates a scenario that includes the effects
and hazards of high wind, referencing groundspeed, high
rates of turn, and power requirements for making downwind
turns in close proximity to the ground.
During the downwind leg of the pattern, the pilot does not
notice the strong wind blowing the WSC aircraft into the
runway. From points A to W, the pilot reduces power as
normal but does not crab into the wind and drifts with the
wind toward the runway between points A and W. This leads
the pilot to be closer to the runway when he or she turns
onto base. The pilot turns onto base and is traveling at high
groundspeed and the strong tailwind leads to the pilot passing
the runway centerline normal fi nal approach at point X. From
points X to Y, the pilot starts the turn for fi nal approach late
because of the high groundspeed. The WSC aircraft past the
runway centerline leads the pilot to increase the bank to make
it back to the centerline. The previous errors lead the pilot
into a high bank angle at low altitude pointed down in a rapid
descent. This leads the pilot to apply full power at Y, which
drives the WSC aircraft into ground at point Z.
The error chain that led to this accident could have been
avoided at two primary points. First, the pilot should have
noticed fl ying in a crosswind or indications of a strong
crosswind on the runway from airport wind indicators at
A. He or she should have then widened the pattern into the
crosswind from A to B and performed the recommended
crosswind procedure described earlier.
Second, if the pilot did not realize the high wind blowing to
the runway until point X was reached, the wings should have
been leveled and a go-around performed without trying to
“make it” back to the runway as shown in the yellow “go-
around” path shown on Figure 11-24.
For strong crosswinds beyond the capabilities of the pilot
or limitations of the WSC aircraft, an alternate landing strip
should be found. This could be another airport or landing strip
that faces into the wind. An option at uncontrolled airports
is to choose an alternate runway or even a taxiway that faces
into the wind. Some of the larger airports with wide runways
make it possible to land at an angle if needed; some are wide
enough to land across the main runway. At towered airports,
the air traffi c controller can assist the pilot and provide an
alternate landing area if requested.
touchdown should be only enough to prevent the nosewheel
from contacting the surface before the main wheels have
touched the surface. Most WSC are designed so the front
wheel is higher than the back wheels in this situation, but each
WSC is different. This must be evaluated for each model.
After touchdown, the pilot should reduce the throttle to idle
and pull the control bar all the way to the chest to lower the
nose and prevent the WSC aircraft from lifting off until it
slows below the stall speed. The aircraft should be allowed
to decelerate normally with the aerodynamic braking of the
wing with the nose lowered, and assisted by the wheel brakes
as required.
Crosswind Approaches and Landings
Many runways or landing areas are made such that landings
must be made while the wind is blowing across rather than
parallel to the landing direction. All pilots should be prepared
to cope with these situations when they arise. The same basic
principles and factors involved in a normal and power-on
approach and landing apply to a crosswind approach and
landing; therefore, only the additional procedures required
for correcting for wind drift are discussed here.
Crosswind approaches and landings are more challenging
than normal landings because of the wind drift in the pattern,
crab angles on approach, and generally more mechanical
turbulence for the fi nal approach and roundout because of
buildings and/or trees along the sides of the runway. Since
mechanical turbulence would typically increase as the aircraft
descends closer to the ground, power-on approaches and
techniques for fl ying in turbulence should be utilized.
Crosswind Pattern Procedures
Since WSC aircraft typically fl y tighter patterns, the pattern
should be modifi ed if the crosswind is in a direction pushing
the WSC aircraft toward the runway. Refer to Figure 11-24
for the following discussion. The normal or typical pattern
downwind and base for calm winds is shown in blue.
This pattern would also be used if there were an opposite
crosswind from that shown blowing from the runway toward
the base leg. If a strong crosswind (15 knots as an example,
which is a limitation for many WSC) is noticed while fl ying
the down wind or the runway wind indicators show this
crosswind, at “A” the decision should be made to modify
the pattern, making it wider by fl ying out to location “B.”
An extended downwind should then be made farther than
the typical normal pattern to “C.” This provides additional
distance from the runway for the base leg, which will be at a
much higher groundspeed than normal because the WSC is
fl ying in a strong tailwind from point “C” to “D.” The turn
must be made at “D” to set up for fi nal approach at “E” where
there is a signifi cant crab angle. From the fi nal approach at
“E” to touchdown, the pilot has suffi cient time to establish
US DESCENT
HAZARDO
TYPICAL DOWN WIND PATTERN FOR WSC
GO-AROUND
TYPICAL PATTERN FOR CALM WINDS
PROPER ALTERNATE PATTERN WITH STRONG CROSSWINDS HEADED TOWARD
Strong Wind
Wind
Wind
High Groundspeed
RUNW
AY
Figure 11-24. Crosswind procedures and effects/hazards of high crosswinds.
FINAL APPROACH ROUND OUT TAXITOUCH
DOWN
Wind
Figure 11-25. Crosswind approach and landing.
Crosswind Landings
When in fi nal approach, the wind correction angle (crab
angle) is established by heading toward the wind with the
wings level so that the aircraft’s ground track remains aligned
with the centerline of the runway. [Figure 11-25] This crab
angle is maintained all the way to touchdown, when the rear
wheels hit fi rst and rotate the carriage and wing around so
the front wheel touches the ground with the carriage going
straight. However, if in turbulent air or pitched forward
during the touchdown, with the front wheel touching the
ground fi rst, the pilot should lightly control the steering of
the front wheel to be headed in the direction the carriage is
going. WSC carriage front landing gear typically has camber
that tends to steer the front wheel naturally in the direction
of travel, so a light touch on the front wheel as it touches
the ground allows it to fi nd its own direction of travel. Once
the front wheel is on the ground, lower the nose to keep the
WSC on the ground and steer as required down the center
of the runway.
The procedure for the wing during the roundout is the same
as that for normal and turbulent roundout and touchdowns.
The exception is that after touchdown the windward wing
should be lowered slightly so the wind cannot get under it to
fl ip the WSC aircraft during later landing roll and taxi.
Maximum Crosswind Velocities
Takeoffs and landings in certain crosswind conditions are
inadvisable and even dangerous. [Figure 11-26] If the
crosswind is great enough, a hazardous landing condition
may result. Therefore, takeoff and landing capabilities with
respect to the reported surface wind conditions and available
landing directions must be considered.
WSC crosswind limitations have been tested and are included
in the POH. The headwind and crosswind components for a
given situation can be determined by reference to a crosswind
component chart. [Figure 11-27] It is imperative that pilots
determine the maximum crosswind component of each aircraft
fl own and avoid operations in wind conditions that exceed the
capability of the aircraft. The automatic weather observation
system (AWOS) or automatic surface observation system
(ASOS) at airports is useful in determining the measured
velocity for this evaluation.
Common errors in the performance of crosswind approaches
and landings include:
• Failure to recognize a strong crosswind blowing at the
runway during the downwind leg;
Figure 11-28. Pilot view of runway where a steep approach would
be required.
Wind Velocity—MPH
Wind Angle—Degrees
20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 110°
DANGER ZONEDANGER ZONEDANGER ZONE
Direct Headwind
Direct Crosswind
Figure 11-26. Example of a crosswind limitations chart.
EXAMPLE
15-knot wind at
50° to runway is
12-knot crosswind
component and
10-knot headwind
component
15 k
not
wind50°
15 knot
wind
12 knots
10 knots
Headwind Component in Knots or MPH
Crosswind Component in Knots or MPH
5 10 15 20 25 30
10°
20°
30°
40°
50°
60°
70°
90°
80°
0°
WIND VELOCITY
WIND VELOCITY
WIND SPEED 15
WIND SPEED 15
Direct Headwind
Direct Crosswind
Figure 11-27. Example of a crosswind component chart.
• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on the
turn from base leg to fi nal approach, resulting in
undershooting or overshooting;
• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on final
approach;
• Unstabilized approach;
• Touchdown while drifting;
• Excessive pressure on the nosewheel steering during
touchdown;
• Excessive airspeed on touchdown;
• Failure to apply appropriate fl ight control inputs during
rollout;
• Failure to maintain direction control on rollout; and
• Excessive braking.
Steep Approaches
A steep approach is a valuable maneuver for WSC aircraft.
[Figure 11-28] It is better to be too high for an approach
rather than too low for an approach in case the engine fails. A
steep approach can be used to reach the landing point easily;
if too low, the aircraft lands short. Steep approaches are used
routinely by many pilots to help ensure making the landing
point if the engine fails.
The two types of procedures (or a combination thereof) used
are based on the angle of descent required. To perform a steep
approach, evaluation of the situation considers the angle of
descent required to land at or within 400 feet of a specifi ed
point in which the steep angle or alternating turns are utilized.
For all steep approaches, the throttle is brought to idle.
• Failure to modify the pattern for strong crosswind
conditions;
• Failure to do a go-around when the fi nal approach to
the runway is downwind of the runway centerline;
• Attempting to land in crosswinds that exceed the pilot’s
capabilities;
• Attempting to land in crosswinds that exceed
the aircraft’s maximum demonstrated crosswind
component;
Normal Final Approach
Steep
Normal Approach Speed
Approach
Decrease speed and intersect normal Touchdown
Figure 11-29. Steep approach—steep angle technique.
Steep Angle
For situations in which an increase in the descent angle is
needed for the intended landing spot, the normal procedure
is to increase speed above the best L D speed in order to
descend. The greater the speed is, the greater the parasitic
drag and descent angle.
Each design has different descent rates based on the parasitic
drag of the wing and carriage. For example, a single surface
with an exposed crossbar wing and a stick carriage (no
streamlined cowling) increases the descent angle quickly
because of the dramatic increases in drag with increased
speed. A double surface wing with a streamlined carriage
does not develop parasitic drag as fast with increased speed
and is less able to achieve a steep angle with increased speed.
The pilot should understand that this characteristic is unique
to the make/model being fl own. This steep angle technique is
the optimum steep approach procedure because the aircraft
is lined up on the runway and the pilot can easily judge the
glideslope using the stabilized approach method covered
earlier. [Figure 11-29]
Increase speed as required to obtain the descent angle for
the intended touchdown point. Use the stabilized approach
technique to obtain the increased angle for the aiming
point. At the higher speeds and greater descent, slow to the
normal approach speed, intersect the normal fi nal approach
path, and perform the landing required for that particular
situation (calm air/crosswinds/turbulent air). As the student
gains profi ciency at steep approach techniques, the altitude
to transition from the high speed steep angle to the normal
approach speed can be lowered and eventually combined
into one continuous roundout for landing started at a higher
altitude than the normal approach and roundout. For this
situation, note that with the increased speed the roundout
covers additional distance that should be accounted for as
the speed is decreased.
Alternating Turns
If at a height at which a steep approach is necessary, but
the aircraft is too high to obtain an angle steep enough to
make the intended landing area, alternating turns can be
made to decrease altitude to a point at which the steep angle
technique could be applied for the remainder of the descent.
These alternating turns should be performed no lower than
400 feet above ground level (AGL). The turns should be
an equal distance from the runway centerline extension to
keep track and maintain the relative position on the runway
centerline. The bank and direction of turns across the runway
centerline should be determined by how much altitude must
be lost to position the WSC aircraft for utilization of the steep
angle technique for the remainder of the steep approach, if
required. [Figure 11-30]
Power-Off Accuracy Approaches
Power-off accuracy approaches are made by gliding with
the engine idling through a specifi c pattern to a touchdown
beyond and within 200 feet of a designated line or mark on
the runway. The objective is to instill in the pilot the judgment
and knowledge of procedures necessary for accurate fl ight,
without power, to a safe landing. This simulates procedures
for an emergency engine-out situation. The ability to estimate
the distance an aircraft glides to a landing is the real basis of
all power-off accuracy approaches and landings. This largely
determines the amount of maneuvering that may be done from
a given altitude. In addition to the ability to estimate distance,
the ability to maintain the proper glide while maneuvering
the aircraft is required.
Normal or Steep-
Angle Approach
Alternating Turns
to Lose Altitude
Minimum
400 feet AGL
Top View
Alternating Turns
on Runway Centerline
Runway
Centerline
Figure 11-30. Alternating turns used if too high to lose enough altitude to position for a normal or steep-angle approach.
With experience and practice, altitudes up to approximately
1,000 feet can be estimated with fair accuracy, while above
this level the accuracy in judgment of height above the
ground decreases since features tend to merge. The best aid
in perfecting the ability to judge height above this altitude is
altimeter indications and associating them with the general
appearance of the Earth.
The judgment of altitude in feet, hundreds of feet, or thousands
of feet is not as important as the ability to estimate gliding
angle and its resultant distance. The pilot who knows the
normal glide angle of the aircraft can estimate with reasonable
accuracy the approximate spot along a given ground path
at which the aircraft lands, regardless of altitude. The pilot
who also has the ability to estimate altitude accurately can
judge how much maneuvering is possible during the glide,
which is important to the choice of landing areas in an actual
emergency.
Unlike a normal approach in which power is available when
needed, for a power-off approach the power is fi xed at the
idle setting. Pitch attitude is adjusted to control the airspeed,
which also changes the glide or descent angle. As discussed
in the basic fl ight maneuvers descents and the steep approach
maneuver, lowering the nose to a speed above the best glide
angle causes the descent angle to steepen. If the airspeed is
too high, raise the nose, and when the airspeed is too low,
lower the nose. If the pitch attitude is raised too high, the
aircraft settles rapidly due to low airspeed and insuffi cient
lift. For this reason, never try to stretch a glide to reach the
desired landing spot.
Uniform approach patterns such as the 90°, 180°, or 360°
power-off approaches are described further in this chapter.
Practice in these approaches provides the pilot with a basis
on which to develop judgment in gliding distance and in
planning an approach. The 180° power-off approach from
pattern altitude should be the normal landing procedure in
calm winds. This should become routine and develop the
ability to accurately judge the landing for an engine-out
situation. Remember, the steep approach technique can
always be used if the aircraft is a little high, but do not stretch
a glide by lowering the speed if too low.
The basic procedure in these approaches involves closing
the throttle at a given altitude and gliding to a key position.
This position, like the pattern itself, must not be allowed to
become the primary objective; it is merely a convenient point
in the air from which the pilot can judge whether the glide
safely terminates at the desired spot. The selected key position
should be one that is appropriate for the available altitude
and the wind condition. From the key position, the pilot must
constantly evaluate the situation. It must be emphasized that,
although accurate spot touchdowns are important, safe and
properly executed approaches and landings are vital. The
pilot must never sacrifi ce a good approach or landing just to
land on the desired spot.
All power-off approaches must be practiced to avoid
interfering with normal traffi c fl ow at busy airports, so the
place and timing must be evaluated by the instructor to
prevent airport traffi c confl icts. This is especially important
for the 360° power-off approach.
90° Power-Off Approach
The 90° power-off approach is made from a base leg and
requires only a 90° turn onto the fi nal approach. The approach
path may be varied by positioning the base leg closer to or
farther away from the approach end of the runway according
to wind conditions. [Figure 11-31] The glide from the key
1. Strong Wind
Set up closest base for
steeper glideslope on final
2. Medium Wind
Set up closer base for
steeper glideslope on final
3. Light Wind
Set up normal base for
normal final
Figure 11-31. Plan the base leg according to wind conditions.
position on the base leg through the 90° turn to the fi nal
approach is the fi nal part of all accuracy landing maneuvers.
Steep approach procedures may be used during the fi nal
approach if needed.
The 90° power-off approach usually begins from a rectangular
pattern below normal pattern altitude as long as this point is
above 500 feet AGL. The before-landing checklist should
be completed on the downwind leg.
After a medium-banked turn onto the base leg is completed
and key position obtained, the throttle should be completely
reduced to idle and the airspeed set to approach speed.
[Figure 11-32] At this position, the intended landing spot
appears to be on a 45° angle from the aircraft’s nose.
The pilot can determine the strength and direction of the
wind from the amount of crab necessary to hold the desired
ground track on the base leg. This helps in planning the turn
onto the fi nal approach. The base-to-fi nal turn should be
planned and accomplished so that upon rolling out of the
turn the aircraft is aligned with the runway centerline. Slight
adjustments in pitch attitude may be necessary to control
the glide angle and airspeed. However, never try to stretch
the glide to reach the desired landing spot. After the fi nal
approach glide has been established, full attention is given
to making a good, safe landing rather than concentrating on
the selected landing spot. In any event, it is better to execute
a good landing 200 feet from the spot than to make a poor
landing precisely on the spot.
180° Power-Off Approach
The 180° power-off approach is executed by gliding with
the power off from a given point on a downwind leg to a
preselected landing spot. [Figure 11-33] It is an extension
of the principles involved in the 90° power-off approach
just described. Its objective is to further develop judgment
in estimating distances and glide ratios, in that the aircraft
is fl own without power from a higher altitude and through
a 90° turn to reach the base-leg position at a proper altitude
for executing the 90° approach.
The 180° power-off approach requires more planning and
judgment than the 90° power-off approach. In the execution
of 180° power-off approaches, the aircraft is fl own on a
downwind heading parallel to the landing runway. The
altitude from which this type of approach should be started
in the downwind leg is at a normal pattern altitude. This
power-off approach should be the normal procedure except
for normal light wind landings, the throttle can be brought
back to idle between the downwind leg key position and the
turn onto the base leg depending on the height and distance
from the runway. When abreast of or opposite the desired
landing spot or a location closer to the turn onto base if the
WSC is further from the runway, the throttle should be closed
and the WSC aircraft set to the best glide speed. The point at
which the throttle is closed is the downwind key position.