Power Reduced to Idle
After Turn to Base Leg
at Base Reference Position
45°
Reference Position
Figure 11-32. 90° power-off approach showing 45° reference position.
90°
Reference Position
Downwind Leg Key Position
Close Throttle Normal Glide Speed
Figure 11-33. 180° power-off approach example.
Reference Position
Reference Position
Normal Glide Speed
Close Throttle
Normal Glide Speed
Figure 11-34. 360° power-off approach.
The turn from the downwind leg to the base leg should be
a uniform turn with a medium or slightly steeper bank. The
degree of bank and amount of this initial turn depends upon
the glide angle of the aircraft and the velocity of the wind.
Again, the base leg should be positioned as needed for the
altitude or wind condition. Position the base leg to conserve
or dissipate altitude to reach the desired landing spot. The
turn onto the base leg should be made at an altitude high
enough and close enough to permit the aircraft to glide
to what would normally be the base key position in a 90°
power-off approach.
Although the key position is important, it must not be
overemphasized or considered as a fi xed point on the ground.
Many inexperienced pilots have the false understanding of it
as a particular landmark, such as a tree, crossroad, or other
visual reference to be reached at a certain altitude. This leaves
the pilot at a total loss any time such objects are not present.
Both altitude and geographical location should be varied as
much as practical to eliminate any such conception. After
reaching the base key position, the approach and landing are
the same as in the 90° power-off approach.
360° Power-Off Approach
The 360° power-off approach is one in which the aircraft
glides through a 360° change of direction to the preselected
landing spot. The entire pattern is designed to be circular
but the turn may be shallowed, steepened, or discontinued at
any point to adjust the accuracy of the fl ightpath. The 360°
approach is started from a position over the approach end of
the landing runway or slightly to the side of it, with the aircraft
headed in the proposed landing direction. [Figure 11-34] It
is usually initiated from approximately 2,000 feet or more
above the ground—where the wind may vary signifi cantly
from that at lower altitudes. This must be taken into account
when maneuvering the aircraft to a point from which a 90°
or 180° power-off approach can be completed.
After the throttle is closed over the intended point of landing,
the proper glide speed should immediately be established and
a medium-banked turn made in the desired direction to arrive
at the downwind reference position opposite the intended
landing spot. The altitude at the downwind reference position
should be approximately 1,000 feet above the ground. After
reaching that point, the turn should be continued to arrive at
a base-leg key position.
The angle of bank can be varied as needed throughout the
pattern to correct for wind conditions and to align the aircraft
with the fi nal approach. The turn to fi nal should be completed
at a minimum altitude of 300 feet above the terrain.
Common errors in the performance of power-off accuracy
approaches include:
• Downwind leg too far from the runway/landing
area;
Large circles at low bank angle over landing field
Base to Final Reference Point
Downwind to Base Reference Point
WIND
Intended Landing
Figure 11-35. If high enough over the intended landing area, remain over intended landing area with large low-banked circles to establish
reference points for landing.
• Overextension of downwind leg resulting from
tailwind;
• Inadequate compensation for wind drift on base leg;
• Attempting to “stretch” the glide during undershoot;
• Forcing the aircraft onto the runway in order to avoid
overshooting the designated landing spot.
Emergency Approaches and Landings
( Simulated Engine Out)
From time to time on dual fl ights, the instructor should
give surprise simulated emergency landings by retarding
the throttle and calling “simulated emergency landing.”
The objective of these simulated emergency landings is to
develop pilot accuracy, judgment, planning, procedures, and
confi dence.
When the instructor calls “simulated emergency landing,”
the pilot should immediately establish the best glide speed
and the aircraft trimmed (if so equipped) to maintain that
speed.
A constant gliding speed should initially be maintained
because variations of gliding speed nullify all attempts at
accuracy in judgment of gliding distance and the landing
spot. The many variables, such as altitude, obstruction, wind
direction, landing direction, landing surface and gradient, and
landing distance requirements of the aircraft determine the
pattern and approach procedures to use.
Utilizing any combination of normal gliding maneuvers,
from wings level to steep turns, the pilot should eventually
arrive at the normal reference position at a normal traffi c
pattern altitude for the selected landing area. From this point
on, the approach is as nearly as possible a normal power-off
approach as described previously in the Power-off Accuracy
Approaches section. Steep approach techniques may be used
for fi nal approach if required.
If the student is high above the desired emergency landing
area, large low-banked circles above the area should be made
and widened or narrowed as required to provide downwind
and fi nal reference points for the landing. [Figure 11-35]
Despite the greater choice of fields afforded by higher
altitudes, the inexperienced pilot may be inclined to delay
making a decision and, despite considerable altitude in which
to maneuver, errors in maneuvering and estimation of glide
distance may develop.
All pilots should learn to determine the wind direction and
estimate its speed from any means available. This could be a
feel of the wind drift on the WSC, GPS ground speed versus
true airspeed, and visual indicators such as the windsock at
the airport, smoke from factories or houses, dust, fi res, fl ags,
ripples on water surfaces, and windmills.
Once a fi eld has been selected, the student pilot should
always be required to indicate it to the instructor. Normally,
the student should be required to plan and fl y a pattern for
landing on the fi eld fi rst elected until the instructor terminates
the simulated emergency landing. This gives the instructor
an opportunity to explain and correct any errors; it also gives
the student an opportunity to see the results of the errors.
However, if the student realizes during the approach that
a poor fi eld has been selected—one that would obviously
result in disaster if a landing were to be made—and there is
a more advantageous fi eld within gliding distance, a change
to the better fi eld should be permitted. The hazards involved
in these last-minute decisions, such as excessive maneuvering
at very low altitudes, should be thoroughly explained by
the instructor. Steep approaches, varying the position of the
base leg, and varying the turn onto fi nal approach should be
stressed as ways of correcting for misjudgment of altitude
and glide angle.
Eagerness to get down is one of the most common faults of
inexperienced pilots during simulated emergency landings.
In giving way to this, they forget about speed and arrive at
the edge of the fi eld with too much speed to permit a safe
landing. Too much speed may be just as dangerous as too
little; it results in excessive fl oating and overshooting the
desired landing spot. It should be impressed on the students
that they cannot dive at a fi eld and expect to land on it if it
is short.
During all simulated emergency landings, the engine should
be kept warm and cleared. During a simulated emergency
landing, the student should have control of the foot throttle
and the instructor should have control of a second throttle.
The instructor should tell the student to increase the throttle
when needed, but the instructor should be ready with the
second throttle in case the student does not apply it as
required.
Every simulated emergency landing approach should be
terminated as soon as it can be determined whether a safe
landing could have been made. In no case should it be
continued to a point where it creates an undue hazard or an
annoyance to persons or property on the ground.
In addition to fl ying the aircraft from the point of simulated
engine failure to where a reasonable safe landing could be
made, the student should also be taught certain emergency
fl ight deck procedures. The habit of performing these fl ight
deck procedures should be developed to such an extent that,
when an engine failure actually occurs, the student checks
the critical items that would be necessary to get the engine
operating again while selecting a fi eld and planning an
approach. Combining the two operations—accomplishing
emergency procedures and planning and flying the
approach—is diffi cult for the student during early training
in emergency landings.
There are defi nite steps and procedures to be followed in
a simulated emergency landing. Although they may differ
somewhat from the procedures used in an actual emergency,
they should be learned thoroughly by the student and each
step called out to the instructor. The use of a checklist is
strongly recommended. Most aircraft manufacturers provide
a checklist of the appropriate items.
Critical items to be checked should include the quantity of
fuel and the position of the magneto switch. Many actual
emergency landings could have been prevented if the pilots
had developed the habit of checking these critical items
during fl ight training to the extent that it carried over into
later fl ying.
Faulty Approaches and Landings
Low Final Approach
When the base leg is too low, insuffi cient power is used, or
the velocity of the wind is misjudged, suffi cient altitude may
be lost, which causes the aircraft to be well below the proper
fi nal approach path. In such a situation, the pilot would need
to apply considerable power to maintain or gain altitude as
required to fl y the aircraft (at an excessively low altitude)
up to the runway threshold. When the proper approach path
has been intercepted, the correct approach attitude should be
reestablished, the power reduced, and a stabilized approach
maintained. [Figure 11-36] Do not increase the pitch attitude
without increasing the power since the aircraft decelerates
rapidly and may approach the critical AOA and stall. If there
is any doubt about the approach being safely completed, it is
advisable to execute an immediate go-around.
High Final Approach
When the fi nal approach is too high, perform a steep approach
as required for the height above the landing spot. Refer to the
steep approach section earlier in this chapter.
Slow Final Approach
When the aircraft is fl own at slower-than-normal airspeed
on the fi nal approach, pilot determination of the rate of sink
(descent) and the height of roundout is diffi cult. During an
excessively slow approach, the wing is operating near the
critical AOA and, depending on the pitch attitude changes
and control usage, the aircraft may stall or sink rapidly and
contact the ground with a hard impact.
Add power
Hold altitude
Intercept normal glidepath
Reduce power smoothly
Resume normal approach
Normal Approach
Path
Wrong (App
roach Too L
ow)
Figure 11-36. Right and wrong methods of correction for low final approach.
Whenever a low-speed approach is noted, the pilot should
apply power and accelerate the aircraft to reduce the sink rate
to prevent a stall. This should be done while still at a high
enough altitude to reestablish the correct approach airspeed
and attitude. If too slow and too low, it is best to execute a
go-around.
Use of Power
Power can be used if required during the approach and
roundout to compensate for errors in judgment. The pilot
should be ready to use the foot throttle while managing the
energy throughout the landing, utilizing energy management
procedures for the current landing conditions. Power can be
added to reduce the descent rate if needed; thus, the descent
can be slowed to an acceptable rate. After the aircraft has
touched down, it is necessary to close the throttle to remove
additional thrust and lift allowing the aircraft to stay on the
ground.
High Roundout
Sometimes when the aircraft appears to stop moving downward
temporarily, the roundout has been made too rapidly and the
aircraft is fl ying level, too high and too slow above the runway.
Continuing the roundout would further reduce the airspeed,
resulting in an increase in AOA to the critical angle. This
would result in the aircraft stalling and dropping hard onto
the runway. To prevent the hard drop, pitch attitude should
be reduced slightly to increase speed to approach speed while
throttle is added to maintain altitude. After speed has been
increased and altitude maintained, the throttle and speed can
both be reduced smoothly and gradually for a gradual descent
with a normal roundout and touchdown.
Although speed is needed after the high roundout is noticed in
order to be corrected, the power application must be enough to
remain level and not initially descend as the speed is increased.
Energy management profi ciency is critical. If too little throttle
is added, the momentary decrease in lift that would result
from lowering the nose and decreasing the AOA may be
so great that the aircraft might contact the ground with the
nosewheel fi rst, which could then collapse. As for all landing
maneuvers that are questionable and the outcome is uncertain,
it is recommended that a go-around be executed.
Late or Rapid Roundout
Starting the roundout too late or pushing the control forward
too rapidly to prevent the aircraft from touching down
prematurely balloons the aircraft up above the runway.
Suddenly increasing the AOA and stalling the aircraft during
a roundout is a dangerous situation since it may cause the
aircraft to land extremely hard on the main landing gear and
then bounce back into the air.
Recovery from this situation requires prompt and positive
application of power and a lowering of the nose to increase
speed prior to occurrence of the stall. This may be followed
by a normal landing, if suffi cient runway is available, similar
to the high roundout discussed above—otherwise the pilot
should immediately execute a go-around.
Floating During Roundout
If the airspeed on fi nal approach is excessive, it usually results
in the aircraft fl oating in ground effect. This is not a problem
if there is plenty of runway and if the pilot fl oats with the
wheels just inches above the surface. Simply maintain this
position inches above the runway, slowly rounding out as
required until the speed bleeds off for a normal touchdown.
If conditions are turbulent, the nose can be lowered gradually
and the aircraft fl own onto the ground, as discussed earlier
in the landing in turbulence procedures.
If the aircraft is well past the desired landing point and
the available runway is insuffi cient, perform a go-around
immediately.
Ballooning During Roundout
If the pilot misjudges the rate of sink during a landing and
thinks the aircraft is descending faster than it should, there
is a tendency to increase the pitch attitude and AOA too
rapidly. This not only stops the descent, but actually starts
the aircraft climbing. This climbing during the roundout is
known as ballooning. Ballooning can be dangerous because
the height above the ground is increasing and the aircraft may
be rapidly approaching a stall. The altitude gained in each
instance depends on the airspeed or the speed with which the
pitch attitude is increased.
When ballooning is slight, the nose should be lowered to
increase speed and return to a gradual descent. Recovery
procedures are similar to those for rounding out too high:
lowering the nose slightly and increasing the throttle to
remain level. Then, the pilot gradually reduces throttle and
speed for a controlled descent rate with the throttle at idle
during touchdown.
When ballooning is excessive, it is best to execute a go-
around immediately; do not attempt to salvage the landing.
Full power must be applied and the nose lowered before the
aircraft enters a stalled condition.
The pilot must be extremely cautious of ballooning when
there is a crosswind present because the crosswind correction
may be inadvertently released or it may become inadequate.
Because of the lower airspeed after ballooning, the crosswind
affects the aircraft more. Consequently, crabbing has to
be increased to compensate for the increased drift. It is
imperative that the pilot makes certain that directional control
is maintained. If there is any doubt, or the aircraft starts to
drift, execute a go-around.
Bouncing During Touchdown
When the aircraft contacts the ground with a sharp impact
as the result of an improper attitude or an excessive rate
of sink, it can bounce back into the air. The severity of the
bounce depends on the airspeed at the moment of contact
and the rebound attitude the WSC aircraft. It can increase the
AOA and, in addition to bouncing, be lifted. It can rebound
in a yawed condition and/or nose up or down. Design and
situational factors create their own unique scenarios.
The corrective action for a bounce is the same as for
ballooning and similarly depends on its severity. When the
bounce is very slight and there is not an extreme change in the
aircraft’s pitch attitude, a follow-up landing may be executed
by applying suffi cient power to cushion the subsequent
touchdown and smoothly adjusting the pitch to the proper
touchdown attitude.
Extreme caution and attention must be exercised any time a
bounce occurs, but particularly when there is a crosswind.
During the bounce, the wind causes the aircraft to roll with
the wind, thus exposing even more surface to the crosswind
and drifting the aircraft more rapidly.
When a bounce is severe, the safest procedure is to execute
a go-around immediately. No attempt to salvage the landing
should be made. Full power should be applied while
simultaneously maintaining directional control and lowering
the nose to a safe climb attitude. The go-around procedure
should be continued even though the aircraft may descend and
another bounce may be encountered. It would be extremely
foolish to attempt a landing from a bad bounce since airspeed
diminishes very rapidly in the nose-high attitude, and a stall
may occur before a subsequent touchdown could be made.
Porpoising
In a bounced landing that is improperly recovered, the
aircraft comes in nose fi rst, setting off a series of motions that
imitate the jumps and dives of a porpoise—hence the name.
The problem is improper aircraft attitude at touchdown,
sometimes caused by inattention, not knowing where the
ground is, or forcing the aircraft onto the runway at an
exceedingly high descent rate.
Porpoising can also be caused by improper airspeed control.
Usually, if an approach is too fast, the aircraft fl oats and the
pilot tries to force it on the runway when the aircraft still tends
to fl y. A gust of wind, a bump in the runway, or even a slight
push on the control bar sends the aircraft aloft again.
The corrective action for a porpoise is the same as for a
bounce, and similarly depends on its severity. When it is very
slight with no extreme change in the aircraft’s pitch attitude,
a follow-up landing may be executed by applying suffi cient
power to cushion the subsequent touchdown, and smoothly
adjusting the pitch to the proper touchdown attitude.
When a porpoise is severe, the safest procedure is to execute
an immediate go-around. In a severe porpoise, the aircraft’s
pitch oscillations can become progressively worse until the
aircraft strikes the runway nose fi rst with suffi cient force
to collapse the nose gear. Pilot attempts to correct a severe
porpoise with fl ight control and power inputs will most
likely be untimely and out of sequence with the oscillations,
only making the situation worse. No attempt to salvage the
landing should be made. Full power should be applied while
simultaneously maintaining directional control and lowering
the nose to a safe climb attitude.
Wing Rising After Touchdown
In all the proper landing techniques except the soft fi eld, the
nose is lowered after the front wheel touches to put a negative
AOA on the wing and keep the WSC aircraft on the ground.
However, there may be instances when landing in a crosswind
that a wing wants to rise during the after-landing roll. This
may occur whether or not there is a loss of directional control
depending on the amount of crosswind and the degree of
corrective action.
Any time an aircraft is rolling on the ground in a crosswind
condition, the upwind wing is receiving a greater force
from the wind than the downwind wing. This causes a lift
differential. Also, as the upwind wing rises, there is an
increase in the AOA which increases lift on the upwind wing
rolling the aircraft downwind.
When the effects of these two factors are great enough, the
upwind wing may rise even though directional control is
maintained. If no correction is applied, it is possible that the
upwind wing rises suffi ciently to cause the downwind wing
to strike the ground.
In a crosswind, the windward wing should be lowered
slightly as a preventive measure to avoid it from lifting. But
in the event a wing starts to rise during the landing roll, the
pilot should immediately lower the nose while lowering the
wing. The wing should be lowered as soon as possible. The
further a wing is allowed to rise before taking corrective
action, the more wing surface is exposed to the force of the
crosswind.
Hard Landing
When the aircraft contacts the ground during landings, its
vertical speed is instantly reduced to zero. Unless provisions
are made to slow this vertical speed and cushion the impact
of touchdown, the force of contact with the ground may be
so great it could cause structural damage to the aircraft.
The purpose of pneumatic tires, shock-absorbing landing
gears, and other devices is to cushion the impact and to
increase the time in which the aircraft’s vertical descent is
stopped. The importance of this cushion may be understood
from the computation that a 6-inch free fall on landing is
roughly equal to a descent of 340 feet per minute. Within a
fraction of a second, the aircraft must be slowed from this
rate of vertical descent to zero without damage.
During this time, the landing gear together with some aid from
the lift of the wings must supply whatever force is needed
to counteract the force of the aircraft’s inertia and weight.
The lift decreases rapidly as the aircraft’s forward speed is
decreased and the force on the landing gear increases by the
impact of touchdown. When the descent stops, the lift is
almost zero leaving only the landing gear to carry both aircraft
weight and inertia force. The load imposed at the instant
of touchdown may easily be three or four times the actual
weight of the aircraft, depending on the severity of contact.
After a hard landing, the WSC carriage and wing should be
inspected by qualifi ed personnel for airworthiness.
Chapter Summary
All landings should consist of evaluating the wind and
conditions so a proper base and fi nal are planned to land at
or beyond the intended point. After the fi nal approach to the
runway, the roundout is started about 10 to 15 feet high and
is a gradual descent until the rear wheels are inches above
the surface. The rotation is continued as the speed bleeds off
to maintain the wheels one to two inches above the runway
until minimum controlled airspeed at which the WSC aircraft
settles to the ground. A roundout that is too fast, or ballooning
where altitude is gained during the landing, is a common
mistake and should be avoided.
The best landing technique for light wind conditions is with
power brought to idle during the downwind leg of the pattern
before the turn to base. Profi ciency in power-off accuracy
landings with 90° turns, 180° turns, 360° turns, and circling
from above are all important safety procedures.
Crosswinds or landing in turbulence requires more energy,
including power-on approaches with higher airspeeds.
In these conditions, the WSC aircraft can be fl own into
the ground above the stall speed. Go-arounds are normal
procedures and should be performed if there is any question
as to the successful outcome of any landing.