Aviation Instructor's Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9)
Chapter 5: The Teaching Process
Introduction
Bob, an aviation maintenance instructor, arrives thirty minutes before a scheduled class to prepare for the lesson he plans to present
that day. A quick visual scan tells him the classroom has good lighting, the desks are in order, and the room presents a neat overall
appearance. He places his lecture notes on the podium, checking to make sure they are all there and in the correct order. Then, he
turns on the computer to ensure the components are working correctly. A quick run of his visual presentation reassures him this
portion of his lecture is ready. Next, he counts the handouts he plans to distribute to the class. By now, learners are beginning to filter
into the classroom. With his preparations complete, Bob is free to greet the learners, chat with them socially, or answer any questions
they might have about the previous class.
Today’s class is Bob’s introductory lecture on aircraft weight and balance. Using a software program, he has created a presentation
featuring examples of safety problems caused by out-of-balance aircraft. He uses these images to introduce the class to the importance
of aircraft weight and balance in safe flying. Then, Bob teaches the class how to compute weight and balance for a generic aircraft.
To reinforce the lecture, Bob divides the class into small groups and distributes handouts which contain sample weight and balance
problems. Working as a group, the learners solve the first weight and balance problem. During this time, Bob and the learners freely
discuss how to figure weight and balance for that particular aircraft. Once the problem is solved, Bob reiterates the steps used to
calculate weight and balance. Now Bob assigns another problem to the learners to be solved independently in class. After each
learner completes this assignment, Bob is confident they will be able to successfully complete the remaining three weight and balance
problems as homework for the next class.
By using a combination of teaching methods and instructional aids, Bob achieves his instructional objective, which is for the learners
to compute weight and balance. In order to present this lesson, Bob has taken the theoretical information presented in previous
chapters—concepts and principles pertinent to human behavior, how people learn, and effective communication —into the classroom.
He has turned this knowledge into practical methodology for teaching purposes. Drawing on previously discussed theoretical
knowledge, this chapter discusses specific recommendations on how to teach aviation learners.
What is Teaching?
Teaching is to instruct or train. Teachers often complete some type of formal training, have specialized knowledge, have been
certified or validated in some way, and adhere to a set of standards of performance. Defining a “good instructor” has proven more
elusive, but in The Essence of Good Teaching (1985), psychologist Stanford C. Ericksen wrote “good teachers select and organize
worthwhile course material, lead learners to encode and integrate this mate rial in memorable form, ensure competence in the
procedures and methods of a discipline, sustain intellectual curiosity, and promote how to learn independently.”
Process
The teaching process organizes the material an instructor wishes to teach in such a way that the learner can understand it. The
teaching process consists of four steps: preparation, presentation, application, and assessment. Regardless of the teaching or training
delivery method used, the overall sequence remains the same. Much research has been devoted to trying to discover what makes an
effective instructor. This research has revealed that effective instructors come in many forms, but they know how to process four
essential teaching steps mentioned above. [Figure 5-1]
The remainder of this chapter explores the qualities of effective teachers and the methods used for preparing, presenting applying, and
assessing lesson material and covers various delivery methods in depth.
Essential Teaching Skills
Four essential skills good teachers have include:
1. People skills
2. Subject matter expertise
3. Assessment skills
4. Management skills
People Skills
Effective instructors relate well to people. Effective communication, discussed in Chapter 4, underlies people skills. It is important
for instructors to remember:
⦁ Technical knowledge is useless if the instructor fails to communicate it effectively.
⦁ The two-way process of effective communication includes actively listening to the learner.
Figure 5-1. Aviation instructors organize course material and use procedures and methods that promote learning.
In the previous scenario, Bob uses the guided group discussion period to listen to his learners discuss the weight and balanc e
problem. By listening to their discussion and questions, he can pinpoint problem areas and explain them more fully during the review
of the solved problem.
People skills also include the ability to interact respectfully, pick up when learners are not following along, provide motivation, and
adapt to the needs of the learner when necessary. Another important people skill used by effective instructors is to challenge learners
intellectually while supporting their efforts. Effective instructors also display enthusiasm for their subject matter and express
themselves clearly.
Subject Matter Expertise
A subject matter expert (SME) is a person who possesses a high level of expertise, knowledge, or skill in a particular area. For
example, the instructor in the opening scenario is an aviation maintenance SME.
Effective instructors have a sincere interest in learning and professional growth. There are a number of professional development
opportunities for aviation instructors, such as Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) seminars, industry conventions, professional
organizations, and online classes. Networking with and observing other instructors and seeking mentoring from an experienced
instructor to learn new strategies is also helpful. By being a lifelong learner, the aviation professional remains current in both aviation
and education. This topic is explored more thoroughly in the section titled Professional Development found within Chapter 8 of this
handbook: Instructor Responsibilities and Professionalism
Management Skills
Management skills generally include the ability to plan, organize, lead, and supervise. For the effective instructor, this translates into
being able to plan, organize, and carry out a lesson. A well-planned lesson means the instructor is also practicing time management
skills and ensures the time allocated for the lesson is used effectively.
To manage time well, it is important that an instructor plans how to use the time to achieve the lesson goals. This includes time for
what needs to be done as well as time to handle the unexpected. It minimizes stress by not planning too much for the allotted time.
Time management also come into play for the aviation instructor who is teaching a class. Consider the opening scenario in which Bob
arrived early for the class and ensured the classroom was ready by completing a series of tasks.
Another management skill that enhances the effectiveness of aviation instructors is supervision of the learners. For the flight
instructor, this may entail overseeing the preflight procedures. For the maintenance instructor, this may mean monitoring a
maintenance procedure. While it is important to provide hands-on tasks in the lesson plan to engage learners, it is also important to
ensure the learners complete the tasks correctly.
Assessment Skills
In Chapter 3, Th e Learning Process, learning w as defined as a change in the behavior as a result of experience. The behavior can be
physical and overt, or it can be intellectual or attitudinal. This change is measurable and therefore can be assessed.
Assessment of learning is a complex process, and it is important to be clear about the purposes of the assessment. There are several
points at which assessments can be made: before training, during training, and after training. Assessment of learning is another
important skill of an effective instructor. [Figure 5-2] This topic is discussed in detail in Chapter 6, Assessment.
Figure 5-2. An effective instructor uses a variety of tools to evaluate how learners learn, as well as what they know.
Instructor's Code of Ethics
While many of the characteristics of effective instructors discussed in the previous paragraphs hold true for any instructor, the
aviation instructor has the added responsibility of molding an aviation citizen—a pilot or maintenance technician who will be an asset
to the rest of the aviation community. The following code describes the concept of a good aviation citizen.
An aviation instructor needs to remember he or she is teaching a pilot or technician who should:
1. Make safety the number one priority,
2. Develop and exercise good judgment in making decisions,
3. Recognize and manage risk effectively,
4. Be accountable for his or her actions,
5. Act with responsibility and courtesy,
6. Adhere to prudent operating practices and personal operating parameters, and
7. Adhere to applicable laws and regulations.
In addition, an aviation instructor needs to remember he or she is teaching a pilot who should:
1. Seek proficiency in control of the aircraft,
2. Use flight deck technology in a safe and appropriate way,
3. Be confident in a wide variety of flight situations, and
4. Be respectful of the privilege of flight.
These concepts are also part of the Flight Instructors Model Code of Conduct (FIMCC), designed to enhance flight and ground
instructor safety and professionalism. Developed by a diverse team of aviation professionals and extensively peer-reviewed within the
aviation community, the FIMCC offers a vision of excellence to help flight and ground instructors build professional relationships
with their learners.
A formal code of conduct/ethics serves as a tool to promote safety, good judgment, ethical behavior, and personal responsibil ity—all
components of professionalism. The code offers a vision of flight education excellence, and it recommends operating practices to
improve the quality and safety of flight instruction. The FIMCC is one of several similar codes that can be found at
www.secureav.com. such as the Aviator ’s Mod el Code of Conduct and a Student Pilot ’s Model Code of Conduct. The National
Association of Flight Instructors (NAFI) and the Society of Aviation and Flight Educators (SAFE), as well as similar groups, also
have a code of ethics for instructors posted on their websites.
Course of Training
In education, a course of training is a complete series of studies leading to attainment of a specific goal. The goal might be a
certificate of completion, graduation, or an academic degree. For example, a learner pilot may enroll in a private pilot certificate
course, and upon completion of all course requirements, be awarded a graduation certificate. A course of training also may be limited
to something like the additional training required for operating high-performance airplanes.
Other terms closely associated with a course of training include curriculum, syllabus, and lesson plan.
A curriculum for pilot training usually includes courses for the various pilot certificates and ratings, while the curriculum for an
aviation maintenance technician (AMT) addresses the subject areas described in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (1 4
CFR) part 147. A syllabus is a summary or outline of an individual course of study that generally contains multiple lessons. The
syllabus contains a description of each lesson, including objectives and completion standards. In aviation, the term “training syllabus”
is commonly used and in this context it is a step- by-step , building block progression of learning with provisions for regular review
and assessments at prescribed stages of learning. [Figure 5-3] A lesson plan is a detailed plan for how a specific lesson will be
conducted. It includes the lesson objectives, organization of material being covered, description of teaching aids, instruction and
learner actions, and evaluation criteria and completions standards.
Figure 5-3. The syllabus defines the unit of training, states by objective what the learner is expected to accomplish during the unit of
training, shows an organized plan for instruction, and dictates the assessment process for either the unit or stages of learning.
Preparation of a Lesson
A determination of objectives and standards precedes instruction. Although some schools and independent instructors may devel op
their own syllabus, in practice, many instructors use a commercially-developed syllabus. For the aviation instructor, the objectives
listed in the syllabus are a beginning point for instruction.
Training Objectives and Standards
Aviation training involves two types of objectives: performance-based and decision-based. Performance-based objectives help define
exactly what needs to be done and how it is done during each lesson. As the learner progresses through higher levels of performance
and understanding, the instructor should shift the training focus to decision-based training objectives. Decision-based training
objectives rely on a more dynamic training environment and are ideally suited to scenario-based training and teach aviation learners
critical thinking skills, such as risk management and aeronautical decision-making (ADM).
As indicated in Chapter 3, The Learning Process, training objectives apply to all three domains of learning —cognitive (knowledge),
affective (attitudes, beliefs, values), and psychomotor (physical skills). Objectives should incorporate the desired level of learning,
and these level of learning objectives may apply to one or more of the three domains of learning. Since each domain includes several
educational or skill levels, the instructor adapts training objectives to a specific performance level of knowledge or skill. Clearly
defined training objectives that the learner understands are essential to the teaching process regardless of the teaching technique used.
Standards are closely tied to objectives since they include a description of the desired knowledge, behavior, or skill stated in specific
terms, along with conditions and criteria. When a learner performs according to well-defined standards, evidence of learning is
apparent. Standards should contain comprehensive examples of the desired learning outcomes, or behaviors. As indicated in Chapter
3, The Learning Process, standards for the level of learning in the cognitive and psychomotor domains are easily established.
However, the design of standards to evaluate a learner’s level of understanding or overt behavior in the affective domain (attitudes,
beliefs, and values) is more difficult.
The overall objective of an aviation training course is usually well established, and the general standards are included in various rules
and related publications. For example, eligibility, knowledge, proficiency, and experience requirements for pilots and AMT learners
are stipulated in the regulations, and the standards are published in the applicable Airman Certification Standards (ACS)/Practical
Test Standards (PTS) or oral and practical tests (O&Ps). It should be noted that ACS/PTS and O&P standards are limited to the most
critical job tasks. Certification tests do not represent an entire training syllabus.
A broad, overall objective of any pilot training course is to qualify the learner to be a competent, efficient, safe pilot for the operation
of specific aircraft types under stated conditions. Similar objectives and standards are established for AMT learners. While the
established criteria or standards to determine whether the training has been adequate use the 14 CFR certification requirements,
professional instructors should not limit their objectives to meeting the minimum published requirements for pilot or AMT
certification.
Successful instructors teach their learners not only how, but also why and when. By incorporating ADM and risk management int o
each lesson, the aviation instructor helps the learner understand, develop, and reinforce the decision-making process which ultimately
leads to sound judgment and good decision-making skills.
Performance-Based Objectives
Performance-based objectives set measurable, reasonable standards describing the learner's desired performance, and may be referred
to as a behavioral, performance, instructional, or educational objective. All refer to the same thing, the behavior of the learner.
These objectives provide a way of stating the level of performance a learner needs to demonstrate before he or she progresses to the
next stage of instruction. Again, the objectives should be clear, measurable, and repeatable and mean the same thing to any
knowledgeable reader. The objectives should be written to avoid the fallibility of recall, interpretation, or loss of specificity with time.
Performance-based objectives consist of three elements: description of the skill or behavior, the conditions, and the criteria. Each
part should be stated in a way that leaves every reader with the same picture of the objective, how it is performed, and at the level of
performance. [Figure 5-4]
Description of the Skill or Behavior
The description of the skill or behavior explains the desired outcome of the instruction as a change in knowledge, skill, or attitude.
The skill or behavior should be in concrete and measurable terms. Phrases such as “knowledge of ...” and “awareness of ...” cannot be
measured very well and should be avoided. Phrases like “able to select from a list of ...” or “able to repeat the steps to ...” are better
because they describe something measurable.
Figure 5-4. Performance-based objectives are made up of a description of the skill or behavior, conditions, and criteria.
Conditions
Conditions explain the rules for demonstration of the skill. If the desired objective is to navigate from point A to point B, the
objective, as stated, is not specific enough for all learners to do it in the same way. Information such as equipment, tools, reference
material, and limiting parameters should be included. For example, inserting several conditions narrows the objective as follows:
“Using appropriate charts, a prepared flight log, and training aircraft, navigate from point A to point B while maintaining standard
hemispheric altitudes.” Sometimes, in the process of reading the objective, someone might say, “But, what if ...?” This is a good
indication that the conditions are confusing and need clarification.
Criteria
Criteria are the standards that measure the accomplishment of the objective. Good criteria define performance so there can be no
question whether or not the performance meets the objective. In the previous example, the criteria may include that navigation from
point A to point B be accomplished within 5 minutes of the preplanned flight time and that en route altitude be maintained within 200
feet. The revised performance-based objective may now also include arrival at point B within 5 minutes of planned arrival time and
cruise altitude should be maintained within 200 feet during the en route phase of the flight.” The alert reader has already noted that
the conditions and criteria changed slightly during the development of these objectives. In real-world objective development, that is
exactly the way it will occur. Conditions and criteria may be refined as necessary.
The Importance of the ACS in Aviation Training Curricula
ACS documents hold an important position in aviation training curricula because they supply the instructor with specific performance
objectives based on the standards for the issuance of a particular aviation certificate or rating. [Figure 5-5] The FAA frequently
reviews the ACS test Areas of Operation and Tasks to maintain their relevance to the current aviation environment. Test items
included as part of a test or evaluation should be both content valid and criterion valid. Content validity means that a particular
maneuver or procedure closely mimics what is required in actual flying. Criterion validity means that the completion standards for the
test are reflective of acceptable standards.
For example, in flight training, content validity is reflected by a particular maneuver closely mimicking a maneuver required in actual
flight, such as the learner pilot being able to recover from a power-off stall. Criterion validity means that the completion standards for
the test are reflective of acceptable standards in actual flight. Thus, the learner pilot exhibits knowledge of all the elements involved
in a power-off stall as listed in the ACS.
Figure 5-5. Examples of Airman Certification Standards.
As discussed in Chapter 3, The Learning Process, humans develop cognitive skills through active interaction with the world. This
concept has led to the adoption of scenario-based training in many fields, including aviation. An effective aviation instructor uses the
maneuver-based approach of the ACS but presents the objectives in a scenario situation.
It has been found that flight learners using SBT methods demonstrate flying skills equal to or better than those trained under the
maneuver-based approach only. Of even more significance is that the same data also suggest that SBT learners demonstrate better
decision-making skills than maneuver-based learners —most likely because their training occurred while performing realistic flight
maneuvers and not artificial maneuvers designed only for teaching that maneuver.
The incorporation of SBT as par t of th e lesson is discussed in mor e detail later in this chapter, as well as in Chapter 7, Planning
Instructional Activity.
Decision-Based Objectives
The design and use of decision-based objectives specifically develops pilot judgment and ADM skills. Improper pilot decisions cause
a significant percentage of all accidents, and the majority of fatal accidents in aircraft. Decision-based objectives facilitate a higher
level of learning and application. By using dynamic and meaningful scenarios, the instructor teaches the learner how to
gather information and make informed, safe, and timely decisions.
Decision-based training is no t a new concep t. Experienced instructors hav e been using scenarios th at requir e dynam ic problem
solving to teach cross-country operations, emergency procedures, and other flight skills for years.
Decision-based learning objectives and the use of flight training scenarios do not preclude traditional maneuver-based training.
Rather, flight maneuvers are integrated into the flight training scenarios and conducted as they would occur in the real-world. Those
maneuvers requiring repetition may still be taught during concentrated settings. However, once they are learned, they are integrated
into realistic and dynamic flight situations.
Decision-based objectiv es ar e also importan t for th e aviation instructor planning AMT training. An AMT us es ADM and risk
management skills during the repair and maintenance of aircraft.
Other Uses of Training Objectives
Performance-based and decision-based objectives help an instructor design a complete lesson plan. An instructor can use the
standards of assessment, objectives, conditions, and criteria to fashion many of the details on the lesson plan. For example, many of
the objective components may be used to determine the elements of the lesson and the schedule of events. The equipment necessary
and the instructor and learner actions anticipated during the lesson have also been specified. By listing the criteria for the training
objectives, the instructor has already established the completion standards normally included as part of the lesson plan.
Use of training objectiv es also provid es the learner with a better understanding of th e big picture, as well as knowledge of wh at is
expected. This overview can alleviate a significant source of uncertainty and frustration on the part of the learner.