⦁ Plan at least one lead-off question for each desired learning outcome. While preparing questions, the
instructor should remember that the purpose is to stimulate discussion, not merely to get answers. Lead-off
questions should usually begin with how or why. For example, it is better to ask “Why does an aircraft
normally r equire a longer takeoff run at Denver than at New Orleans?” instead of “Would you expect an
aircraft to r equire a longer takeoff run at Denver or at New Orleans?” Learners can answer the second
question b y merely saying “Denver,” but the first question is likely to start a discussion of air density,
engine efficiency, and the effect of temperature on performance.
Learner Preparation for a Guided Discussion
It is the instructor’s responsibility to help learners prepare themselves for the discussion. Each learner should be encouraged to accept
responsibility for contributing to the discussion and benefiting from it. Throughout the time the instructor prepares the learners for
their discussion, they should be made aware of the lesson objective(s). In certain instances, the instructor has no opportunity to assign
preliminary work. In such cases, it is practical and advisable to give the learners a brief general survey of the topic during the
introduction. Normally, learners should not be asked to discuss a subject without some background in that subject.
Guiding a Discussion—Instructor Technique
The techniques used to guide a discussion require practice and experience. The instructor needs to keep up with the discussion and
know when to intervene with questions or redirect the group’s focus. The following information provides a framework for
successfully conducting the guided discussion.
Introduction
The introduction should include an attention element, a motivation element, and an overview of key points. To encourage enthusiasm
and stimulate discussion, the instructor should create a relaxed, informal atmosphere. Each learner should be given the opportunity to
discuss the various aspects of the subject, and feel free to do so. Moreover, the learner should feel a personal responsibility to
contribute. The instructor should try to make the learners feel that their ideas and active participation are wanted and needed.
Discussion
The instructor opens the discussion by asking one of the prepared lead-off questions. Discussion questions should be easy for
learners to understand and put forth decisively. While the instructor should have the answer in mind before asking the question, the
learners need to think about the question before answering. It takes time for learners to recall data, determine how to answer, or to
think of an example.
The more difficult the question, the more time the learners need to answer. If the instructor sees puzzled expressions, denoting that
the learners do not understand the question, it should be rephrased in a slightly different form. The nature of the questions should be
determined by the lesson objective and desired learning outcomes.
Once the discussion is underway, the instructor should listen attentively to the ideas, experiences, and examples contributed by the
learners during the discussion. Remember that during the preparation, the instructor listed some of the anticipated responses that
would, if discussed by the learners, indicate that they had a firm grasp of the subject. By using “how” and “why” follow- up questions,
the instructor should be able to guide the discussion toward the objective of helping learners understand the subject.
After the learners discuss the ideas that support this particular part of the lesson, the instructor should summarize what they have
accomplished using an interim summary. This usually occurs after the discussion of each learning outcome to bring ideas together and
help in transition, showing how the discussion by the group related to and supported the objective. An interim summary reinforces
learning in relation to a specific learning outcome. The interim summary may also be used to keep the group on the subject or to
divert the discussion to another member.
Conclusion
A guided discussion closes by summarizing the material covered. The instructor ties together the various points or topics discussed,
and shows the relationships between the facts brought forth and the practical application of these facts. For example, while
concluding a discussion on density altitude, an instructor might describe an accident, which occurred due to a pilot attempting to take
off at a high-altitude airport with a fully loaded aircraft on a hot day.
The summary should be succinct, but not incomplete. If the discussion has revealed that certain areas are not understood by one or
more members of the group, the instructor should clarify or cover this material again.
Advantages
Training methods involving discussion encourage learners to listen to and learn from their instructor and each other. Open-ended
questions during guided discussion leads to concepts of risk management and ADM. The use of “What If?” during the discussion
calls for high order thinking skills and exposes the learner to the decision-making process.
From the description of guided discussion, it is obvious this method works well in a group situation, but it can be modified for an
interactive one-on-one learning situation. [Figure 5-11]
Figure 5-11. As the learner grows in flight knowledge, he or she should be able to lead the postflight review while the instructor
guides the discussion with targeted questions.
Problem-Based Learning
In 1966, the McMaster University School of Medicine in Canada pioneered a new approach to teaching and curriculum design called
problem-based learning (PBL). In the intervening years, PBL has helped shift the focus of learning from an instructor-centered
approach to a learner-centered approach. There are many definitions for PBL, but this handbook defines it as a learning environment
where lessons involve learners with problems encountered in real life and that ask them to find real-world solutions.
PBL starts with a carefully constructed problem to which there is no single solution. The benefit of PBL lies in helping the learner
gain a deeper understanding of the information and in improving his or her ability to recall the information.
When presenting material as an authentic problem in a situated environment, the learner may “make meaning” of the information
based on past experience and personal interpretation. This problem type encourages the development of HOTS, which include
cognitive processes such as problem solving and decision-making, as well as the cognitive skills of analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
Developing good problems that motivate, focus, and initiate learning are an important component of PBL. Effective problems:
1. Relate to the real-world so learners want to solve them.
2. Require learners to make decisions.
3. Are open-ended and not limited to one correct answer.
4. Are connected to previously learned knowledge as well as new knowledge.
5. Reflect lesson objective(s).
6. Challenge learners to think critically.
Teaching Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
To teach the cognitive skills needed in making decisions and judgments effectively, an instructor should incorporate analysis ,
synthesis, and evaluation into lessons using PBL. HOTS should be taught throughout the curriculum from simple to complex and
from concrete to abstract.
Basic approach to teaching HOTS:
1. Set up the problem.
2. Determine learning outcomes for the problem.
3. Solve the problem or task.
4. Reflect on problem-solving process.
5. Consider additional solutions through guided discovery.
6. Reevaluate solution with additional options.
7. Reflect on this solution and why it could be the best solution.
8. Consider what “best” means (Is it situational?).
Types of Problem-Based Instruction
A problem-based lesson usually involves an incentive or need to solve the problem. It includes a decision on how to find a solution, a
possible solution, an explanation for the reasons used to reach that solution, and then reflection on the solution. A discussion of three
types of problem-based instruction follow: scenario-based, collaborative problem-solving, and case study.
Scenario-Based Training Method (SBT)
SBT uses a highly structured script of real-world experiences to address aviation training objectives in an operational environment. It
presents realistic situations that allow learners to rehearse mentally and explore practical application of various bits of knowledge.
Pilot decisions cause a significant percentage of all accidents and the majority of fatal accidents, and SBT challenges the learner or
transitioning pilot using a variety of flight scenarios with the goal of avoiding accidents. These scenarios require the pilot to manage
the available resources, exercise sound judgment, and make timely decisions. Such training can include initial training, transition
training, upgrade training, recurrent training, and special training. Since it has been documented that learners gain more knowledge
when actively involved in the learning process, SBT is also used to train AMTs.
The scenario may not have one right or one wrong answer, which reflects situations faced in the real-world. It is important for the
instructor to understand in advance which outcomes are positive and/or negative and give the learner freedom to make both good and
poor decisions without jeopardizing safety. This allows the learner to make decisions that fit his or her experience level and result in
positive outcomes.
Once the class has mastered the ability to compute weight and balance, Bob decides to give them a real-world scenario. A customer
wants a tail strobe light installed on his Piper Cherokee 180. How will this installation affect the weight and balance of the aircraft?
The learners need to plan to remove the position light, install a power supply, and also install the tail strobe light. Then they need to
consider all the actions and procedures that affect the final weight and balance of the aircraft. What if part of the assembly does not fit
properly? The real-world problem forces the learner to analyze, evaluate, and make decisions about the procedures required.
For the flight instructor, a good scenario tells a story that begins with a reason to fly because a pilot’s decisions differ depending on
the motivation to fly. For example, Mark and his college fraternity brothers bought tickets for a playoff game at their alma mater.
Mark volunteered to fly all of them to the game in an airplane he rented. Another friend is planning to meet them at the airport and
drive everyone to the game and back.
Mark has strong motivation to fly his friends to the game, so he checks the weather for College Airport which is reported as clear and
unrestricted visibility. His flight is a go, yet, 15 miles from College Airport he descends to 1,000 feet to stay below the lowering
clouds and encounters rain and lowering visibility to 3 miles. The terrain is flat farmland with no published obstacles. What will he do
now?
Remember, a good inflight scenario is a learning experience. SBT is a powerful tool because the future is unpredictable and there is
no way to train a pilot for every combination of events that may happen in the future. A good scenario:
1. Is not a test;
2. Will not have one right answer;
3. Does not offer an obvious answer;
4. Should not promote errors; and
5. Should promote situational awareness and opportunities for decision-making.
Collaborative Problem-Solving Method
When using the collaborative problem-solving method, the instructor provides a problem to a group who then solves it. The instructor
provides assistance when needed, but understands that learning to solve the problem without assistance is part of the learning process.
This method can be modified for an interactive one- on-one learning situation such as an independent aviation instructor might
encounter. The instructor provides the problem to the learner and participates in finding solutions by offering limited assistance as the
learner solves it. Once again, open-ended “what if” problems encourage the learners an opportunity to develop HOTS.
Case Study Method
An increasingly popular form of teaching, the case study, contains a story relative to the learner that forces him or her to deal with
situations encountered in real life. The instructor presents the case to the learners who then analyze it, come to conclusions, and offer
possible solutions. Effective case studies require the learner to use critical thinking skills.
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) descriptions of aviation accidents provide an excellent source of real-world case
studies for flight instructors. By removing the NTSB determination of probable cause, a flight instructor can use the description as a
case study and allow the learners to discuss probable cause without bias. The learners analyze the information and suggest possible
reasons for the accident. The instructor then shares the NTSB’s determination of probable cause, which can lead to further
discussions of how to avoid this type of accident.
Electronic Learning (E-Learning)
Electronic learning or e-learning has become an umbrella term for any type of education that involves an electronic component.
[Figure 5-12] E-learning comes in many formats. It can be a stand-alone software program that takes a learner from lecture to exam
or it can be an interactive web-based course.
Time flexible, cost competitive, learner-centered, easily updated, accessible anytime and anywhere; e-learning has many advantages
that make it a popular addition to the field of education.
E-learning is now used for training at many different levels. For example, technology flight training devices and flight simulators are
used by everyone from flight schools to major airlines, as well as the military. Flight Schools of all types may offer training using a
variety of computer-based desk top Basic Aviation Training Devices (BATDs), stand-alone, personal computer based advanced
aviation training devices (AATDs) and even more advance Flight Training Devices (FTDs) for a portion of the time a pilot needs for
various certificates and ratings. Major airlines have high-level flight simulators that are so realistic that transitioning crews meet all
qualifications in the flight simulator. Likewise, military pilots use flight training devices or flight simulators to prepare for flying
aircraft, such as the A-10, for which there are no two-seat training versions. With e-learning, sophisticated databases can organize
vast amounts of information that can be quickly sorted, searched, found, and cross-indexed.
Figure 5-12. E-learning encompasses a variety of electronic educational media.
The active nature of e-learning enhances the overall learning process several ways. Well-designed programs allow learners to feel
more in control of the content and how fast they learn it. They can explore areas of interest and discover more about a subject on their
own. In addition, e-learning often seems more enjoyable than learning from a classroom lecture. Main advantages include less time
spent on instruction compared to traditional classroom training, and a higher level of mastery and retention.
Distance learning, or the use of electronic media to deliver instruction when the instructor and learner are separated, is another
advantage to e-learning. Participants in a class may be located on different continents, yet share the same teaching experience.
Distance learning also may be defined as a system and process that connects learners with resources for learning. As sources for
access to information expand, the possibilities for distance learning increase.
While e-learning has many training advantages, it also has limitations which can include the lack of peer interaction and personal
feedback, depending on what method of e-learning is used. For the instructor, maintaining control of the learning situation may be
difficult. It also may be difficult to find good programs for certain subject areas, and the expense associated with the equipment,
software, and facilities need to be considered. In addition, instructors and learners may lack sufficient experience with specific
programs to take full advantage of the software that is available.
Improper or excessive use of e-learning should be avoided. For example, a flight instructor should not rely exclusively on a software
program on traffic patterns and landings to do the ground instruction for a learner pilot, and then expect the learner to demonstrate
patterns and landings in the aircraft. Likewise, it would be unfair to expect a maintenance learner to safely and properly perform a
compression check on an aircraft engine if he or she received only e-learning training.
Along with the many types of e-learning, there are a variety of terms used to describe the educational use of the computer. This
handbook will use the term “computer-assisted learning” in the following discussion.
Computer-Assisted Learning (CAL) Method
Computer-assisted learning (CAL) couples the personal computer (PC) with multimedia software to create a training device. For
example, major aircraft manufacturers have developed CAL programs to teach aircraft systems and maintenance procedures to their
employees, reducing the amount of instructor time necessary to train aircrews and maintenance technicians on the new equipment.
End users of the aircraft, such as the major airlines, can purchase the training materials with the aircraft in order to accomplish both
initial and recurrent training of their personnel. Major advantages of CAL are that learners can progress at a rate which is comfortable
for them and are often able to access the CAL at their own convenience.
Another benefit of CAL is an FAA test prep study guide, useful for preparation for the FAA knowledge tests. These programs
typically allow the learners to select a test, complete the questions, and find out how they did on the test. The learner may then
conduct a review of questions missed.
Some of the more advanced CAL applications allow learners to progress through a series of interactive segments where the
presentation varies as a result of their responses. They can focus on the area they either need to study or want to study. For example, a
maintenance learner who wants to find information on the refueling of a specific aircraft could use a CAL program to access the
refueling section, and study the entire procedure. If the learner wishes to repeat a section or a portion of the section, it can be done at
any time.
CAL programs can be used by the instructor as another type of study reference. Just as a learner can reread a section in a text, the
learner may review portions of a CAL program. The instructor should continue to monitor and evaluate the progress of the learner as
usual. This is necessary to be certain a learner is on track with the training syllabus. When using CAL, instructors may do more one -
on- one instruction than in a normal classroom setting, since repetitive forms of teaching may be accomplished by computer.
Remember, the computer has no way of knowing when a learner is having difficulty, and it will always be the responsibility of the
instructor to provide monitoring and oversight of learner progress. [Figure 5-13]
Real interactivity with CAL means the learner is fully engaged with the instruction by doing something meaningful which makes the
subject of study come alive. For example, the learner controls the pace of instruction, reviews previous material, jumps forward, and
receives instant feedback. With advanced tracking features, CAL also can be used to test the learner’s achievement, compare t he
results with past performance, and indicate weak or strong areas.
For most aviation training, the computer should be thought of as a valuable instructional aid, and CAL is a useful tool for aviation
instructors. For example, in teaching aircraft maintenance, CAL programs produced by various aircraft manufacturers can be used to
expose learners to equipment not normally found at a maintenance school. Another use of computers would allow learners to review
procedures at their own pace while the instructor is involved in hands-on training with others. The major advantage of CAL is that it
is interactive—the computer responds in different ways, depending on learner input. When using CAL, the instructor should remain
actively involved with the learners by using close supervision, questions, examinations, quizzes, or guided discussions on the subject
matter to constantly assess progress.
Figure 5-13. The instructor continually monitors learner performance when using CAL, as with all instructional aids.
Simulation, Role-Playing, and Video Gaming
Simulation (the appearance of real life), role-playing (playing a specific role in the context of a real-world situation), and video
gaming have taken e-learning in new directions. [Figure 5-14] The popularity of simulation games that provide players with complex
situations and opportunities to learn have drawn educators into the gaming field as they seek interactive educational games that help
retain subject matter learning.
The advantages of simulation/role-playing games come as the learner obtains new information, develops skills, connects and
manipulates information. A game gives the learner a stake in the outcome by putting them into the shoes of a character (role-playing)
who needs to overcome a real-world scenario. Learning evolves as a result of the interactions with the game, and these games usually
promote the development of critical thinking skills.
Not every aviation learning objective can be delivered via this teaching method, but it should prove to be a useful tool in the
instructor’s tool box as the number and content of educational games increase.
Figure 5-14. Flight simulator.
Cooperative or Group Learning Method
Cooperative or group learning organizes learners into small groups who can work together to maximize understanding. Research
indicates that learners completing cooperative learning group tasks tend to have better test scores, higher self-esteem, improved social
skills, and greater comprehension of the subjects they are studying. Perhaps the most significant characteristic of group learning is
that it continually requires active participation in the learning process.
Conditions and Controls
In spite of its advantages, success with cooperative or group learning depends on conditions and controls. First of all, instructors need
to begin planning early to determine what the group is expected to learn and to be able to do on their own. The group task ma y
emphasize academic achievement, cognitive abilities, or physical skills, but the instructor should use clear and specific objectives to
describe the knowledge and/or abilities the learners are to acquire and then demonstrate on their own.
The following conditions and controls are useful for cooperative learning:
⦁ Small, heterogeneous groups
⦁ Clear, complete instructions of what learners are to do, in what order, with what materials, and when
appropriate—what learners are to do as evidence of their mastery of targeted content and skills
⦁ Learner perception of targeted objectives as their own, personal objectives
⦁ The opportunity for learner success
⦁ Learner access to and comprehension of required information
⦁ Sufficient time for learning
⦁ Individual accountability
⦁ Recognition and rewards for group success
⦁ Time after completion of group tasks for learners to systematically reflect upon how they worked together as
a team
In practice, collaborative, learner-led, instructor-led, or working group strategies are types of group learning. In these examples, the
leader or the instructor serves as a coach or facilitator who interacts with the group, as necessary, to keep it on track or to encourage
everyone in the group to participate.
Demonstration-Performance Method
Best used for the mastery of mental or physical skills that require practice, the demonstration-performance method is based on the
principle that people learn by doing. In this method, learners observe the skill and then try to reproduce it. It is well suited for the
aircraft maintenance instructor who uses it in the shop to teach welding, and the flight instructor who uses it in teaching piloting skills.
Every instructor should recognize the importance of learner performance in the process. Early in demonstration and performanc e
lesson, the instructor should identify the most important learning outcomes. Next, explain and demonstrate the steps involved in
performing the skill being taught. Then, allow learners time to practice each step, so they can increase their ability to perform the
skill.
The demonstration-performance method is divided into five phases: explanation, demonstration, learner performance, instructor
supervision, and evaluation. [Figure 5-15]
Explanation Phase
Explanations need to be clear, pertinent to the objectives of the particular lesson to be presented, and based on the known experience
and knowledge of the learners. In teaching a skill, the instructor conveys to the learners the precise actions they are to perform. In
addition to the necessary steps, the instructor should describe the end result of these efforts. Before leaving this phase, the instructor
should encourage learners to ask questions about any step of the procedure that they do not understand.